Оглавление
NITIN KUMAR. Thermal Food Engineering Operations
Table of Contents
List of Table
List of Figures
Guide
Pages
Thermal Food Engineering Operations
Preface
1. Novel Thermal Technologies: Trends and Prospects
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Novel Thermal Technologies: Current Status and Trends
1.2.1 Environmental Impact of Novel Thermal Technologies
1.2.2 The Objective of Thermal Processing
1.2.3 Preservation Process
1.3 Types of Thermal Technologies
1.3.1 Infrared Heating. 1.3.1.1 Principal and Mechanism
1.3.1.2 Advantages of IR Heating
1.3.1.3 Applications of IR Heating
1.3.2 Microwave Heating. 1.3.2.1 Principal and Mechanism
1.3.2.2 Advantages of Microwave in Food Industry
1.3.2.3 Application of Microwave in Food Processing Technologies
1.3.3 Radiofrequency (RF) Heating. 1.3.3.1 Principal and Mechanism
1.3.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
1.3.3.3 Applications
1.3.4 Ohmic Heating. 1.3.4.1 Principal and Mechanism
1.3.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
1.3.4.3 Applications
1.4 Future Perspective of Novel Thermal Technologies
1.5 Conclusion
References
2. Microbial Inactivation with Heat Treatments
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Innovate Thermal Techniques for Food Reservation
2.3 Inactivation Mechanism of Targeted Microorganism
2.3.1 Action Approach and Inactivation Targets
2.4 Environmental Stress Adaption
2.4.1 Sublethal Injury
2.5 Resistance of Stress
2.5.1 Oxidative Stress
2.5.2 Osmotic Stress
2.5.3 Pressure
2.6 Various Techniques for Thermal Inactivation. 2.6.1 Infrared Heating. 2.6.1.1 Principle and Mechanism
2.6.1.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector
2.6.2 Microwave Heating. 2.6.2.1 Principle and Mechanism
2.6.2.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector
2.6.3 Radiofrequency Heating. 2.6.3.1 Principle and Mechanism
2.6.3.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector
2.6.4 Instant Controlled Pressure Drop Technology (DIC) 2.6.4.1 Principle and Mechanism
2.6.4.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector
2.6.5 Ohmic Heating. 2.6.5.1 Principle and Mechanism
2.6.5.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector
2.7 Forthcoming Movements of Thermal Practices in Food Industry
2.8 Conclusion
References
3. Blanching, Pasteurization and Sterilization: Principles and Applications
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Blanching: Principles & Mechanism
3.2.1 Types of Blanching
3.2.1.1 Hot Water Blanching
3.2.1.2 Steam Blanching
3.2.1.3 High Humidity Hot Air Impingement Blanching (HHAIB)
3.2.1.4 Microwave Blanching
3.2.1.5 Ohmic Blanching
3.2.1.6 Infrared Blanching
3.2.2 Application of Blanching
3.2.2.1 Inactivation of Enzymes
3.2.2.2 Enhancement of Product Quality and Dehydration
3.2.2.3 Toxic and Pesticides Residues Removal
3.2.2.4 Decreasing Microbial Load
3.2.2.5 Reducing Non-Enzymatic Browning Reaction
3.2.2.6 Peeling
3.2.2.7 Entrapped Air Removal
3.2.2.8 Enhancing Bioactive Extraction Efficiency
3.2.2.9 Other Applications
3.3 Pasteurization: Principles & Mechanism
3.3.1 Thermal Pasteurization
3.3.2 Traditional Thermal Pasteurization
3.3.3 Microwave and Radiofrequency Pasteurization
3.3.4 Ohmic Heating Pasteurization
3.3.5 Application of Pasteurization
3.4 Sterilization: Principles, Mechanism and Types of Sterilization
3.4.1 Conventional Sterilization Methods
3.4.2 Advanced Retorting
3.4.3 Microwave-Assisted Thermal Sterilization
3.4.4 Pressure-Assisted Thermal Sterilization
3.5 Conclusions
References
4. Aseptic Processing
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Aseptic Processing
4.3 Principle of Thermal Sterilization
4.3.1 Effect of Thermal Treatment on Enzymes
4.3.2 Effect of Thermal Treatments on Nutrients and Quality
4.3.3 Effect of Thermal Treatments on the Cooking Index (C0)
4.3.4 Effect of Heat Treatments on Chemical Reactions in Food
4.4 Components of Aseptic Processing
4.4.1 Equipment Used in Aseptic/UHT Processing
4.4.1.1 Indirect Heat Exchanger
4.4.1.2 Direct Heat Exchanger
4.4.1.3 Ohmic Heating (OH)
4.5 Aseptic Packaging
4.5.1 Types of Packaging Materials Used in Aseptic Processing
4.5.2 Methods and Requirements of Decontamination of Packaging Materials
4.6 Applications of Aseptic Processing and Packaging
4.6.1 Milk Processing
4.6.2 Non-Milk Products Processing
4.7 Advantages of Aseptic Processing and Packaging
4.8 Challenges of Aseptic Processing and Packaging
4.9 Conclusion
References
5. Spray Drying: Principles and Applications
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Concentration of Feed Solution
5.3 Atomization of Concentrated Feed
5.3.1 Principle of Atomization
5.3.2 Classification of Atomizers
5.3.2.1 Rotary Atomizers
5.3.2.2 Pressure Nozzle/Hydraulic Atomizer
5.3.2.3 Two-Fluid Nozzle Atomizer
5.4 Droplet-Hot Air Contact
5.5 Drying of Droplets
5.6 Particle Separation
5.7 Effect of Process Parameters on Product Quality
5.7.1 Process Parameters of Atomization
5.7.2 Parameters of Spray-Air Contact and Evaporation
5.7.2.1 Spray Angle
5.7.2.2 Aspirator Flow Rate
5.7.2.3 Inlet Air Temperature
5.7.2.4 Outlet Air Temperature
5.7.2.5 Glass Transition Temperature
5.7.2.6 Residence Time
5.8 Classification of Spray Dryer
5.8.1 Open-Cycle Spray Dryer
5.8.2 Closed-Cycle Spray Dryer
5.8.3 Semi-Closed Cycle Spray Dryer
5.8.4 Single-Stage Spray Dryer
5.8.5 Two-Stage Spray Dryer
5.8.6 Short-Form Spray Dryer
5.8.7 Tall-Form Spray Dryer
5.9 Morphological Characterization of Spray-Dried Particles
5.10 Application of Spray Drying for Foods
5.11 Wall Materials
5.11.1 Carbohydrate-Based Wall Materials
5.11.1.1 Starch
5.11.1.2 Modified Starch
5.11.1.3 Maltodextrins
5.11.2 Cyclodextrins
5.11.3 Gum Arabic
5.11.4 Inulin
5.11.5 Pectin
5.11.6 Chitin and Chitosan
5.11.7 Protein-Based Wall Materials
5.11.7.1 Whey Protein Isolate
5.11.7.2 Skim Milk Powder
5.11.7.3 Soy Protein Isolate (SPI)
5.12 Encapsulation of Probiotics
5.12.1 Choice of Bacterial Strain
5.12.2 Response to Cellular Stresses
5.12.3 Growth Conditions
5.12.4 Effect of pH
5.12.5 Harvesting Technique
5.12.6 Total Solid Content of the Feed Concentrate
5.13 Encapsulation of Vitamins
5.14 Encapsulation of Flavours and Volatile Compounds
5.14.1 Selective Diffusion Theory
5.15 Conclusion and Perspectives
References
6. Solar Drying: Principles and Applications
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Principle of Solar Drying
6.3 Construction of Solar Dryer
6.4 Historical Classification of Solar Energy Drying Systems
6.5 Storing Solar Energy for Drying
6.6 Hybrid/Mixed Solar Drying System
6.7 Solar Greenhouse Dryer
6.8 Solar Drying Economy
6.9 New Applications Related to Solar Drying
References
7. Fluidized Bed Drying: Recent Developments and Applications
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Principle and Design Considerations of Fluidized Bed Dryer
7.2.1 Spouted Bed Dryer
7.2.2 Spout Fluidized Bed Dryer
7.2.3 Hybrid Drying Techniques
7.2.3.1 Microwave-Assisted FBD
7.2.3.2 FIR-Assisted FBD
7.2.3.3 Heat Pump–Assisted FBD
7.2.3.4 Solar-Assisted FBD
7.3 Design Alterations for Improved Fluidization Capacity. 7.3.1 Vibrated Fluidized Bed
7.3.2 Agitated Fluidized Bed
7.3.3 Centrifugal Fluidized Bed
7.4 Energy Consumption in Fluidized Bed Drying
7.5 Effect of Fluidized Bed Drying on the Quality
7.6 Applications of Fluidized Bed Drying
7.7 Concluding Remarks
References
8. Dehumidifier Assisted Drying: Recent Developments
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Absorbent Air Dryer
8.2.1 Working Principle of Adsorption Air Dryer
8.2.2 Design Considerations and Components of the Absorbent Air Drier. 8.2.2.1 Desiccant Drying System. 8.2.2.1.1 Dehumidifier
8.2.2.1.2 Food Drying System
8.2.2.1.3 Temperature and Airflow Control
8.2.3 Performance Indicators of Desiccant Air Dryer System
8.2.3.1 Low Temperature Drying With No Temperature Control and Air Circulation System
8.2.3.2 Low Temperature Drying With Air Circulation and Temperature Control
8.3 Heat Pump–Assisted Dehumidifier Dryer
8.3.1 Working Principles of a Heat Pump–Assisted Dehumidifier Dryer
8.3.2 Performance Indicators of Heat Pump–Assisted Dehumidifier Dryer
8.4 Applications of Dehumidifier-Assisted Dryers in Agriculture and Food Processing
8.5 Concluding Remarks
References
9. Refractance Window Drying: Principles and Applications
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Refractance Window Drying System. 9.2.1 History and Origin
9.2.2 Components and Working of the Dryer
9.2.3 Principle of Operation
9.3 Heat Transfer and Drying Kinetics
9.3.1 Drying Rate and Moisture Reduction Rate
9.4 Effect of Process Parameters on Drying. 9.4.1 Effect of Temperature of the Hot Circulating Water
9.4.2 Effect of Product Inlet Temperature and Thickness
9.4.3 Effect of Residence Time
9.4.4 Effect of Ambient Air Temperature (Air Convection)
9.5 Comparison of Refractance Window Dryer with Other Types of Dryers
9.6 Effect of Refractance Window Drying on Quality of Food Products
9.6.1 Effects on Food Color
9.6.2 Effects on Bioactive Compounds
9.6.2.1 Carotene Retention
9.6.2.2 Ascorbic Acid Retention
9.6.2.3 Anthocyanin Retention
9.7 Applications of Refractance Window Drying in Food and Agriculture
9.7.1 Applications of Refractance Window Drying in Preservation of Heat-Sensitive and Bioactive Compounds
9.7.2 Applications of Refractance Window Drying on Food Safety
9.8 Advantages and Limitations of Refractance Window Dryer
9.9 Recent Developments in Refractance Window Drying
9.10 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
10. Ohmic Heating: Principles and Applications
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Basic Principles
10.3 Process Parameters
10.3.1 Electrical Conductivity
10.3.2 Electrical Field Strength
10.3.3 Frequency and Waveform
10.3.4 Product Size, Viscosity, and Heat Capacity
10.3.5 Particle Concentration
10.3.6 Ionic Concentration
10.3.7 Electrodes
10.4 Equipment Design
10.5 Application
10.5.1 Blanching
10.5.2 Pasteurisation/Sterilization
10.5.3 Extraction
10.5.4 Dehydration
10.5.5 Fermentation
10.5.6 Ohmic Thawing
10.6 Effect of Ohmic Heating on Quality Characteristics of Food Products. 10.6.1 Starch and Flours. 10.6.1.1 Water Absorption Index (WAI) and Water Solubility Index (WSI)
10.6.1.2 Pasting Properties
10.6.1.3 Thermal Properties
10.6.2 Meat Products
10.6.3 Fruits and Vegetable Products. 10.6.3.1 Electrical Properties
10.6.3.2 Soluble Solids Content and Acidity
10.6.3.3 Vitamins
10.6.3.4 Flavor Compounds
10.6.3.5 Phenolic Compounds
10.6.3.6 Colour Properties
10.6.3.7 Change in Chlorophyll Content
10.6.3.8 Textural Properties
10.6.3.9 Sensory Properties
10.6.4 Dairy Products
10.6.5 Seafoods
10.7 Advantages of Ohmic Heating
10.8 Disadvantages of Ohmic Heating
10.9 Conclusions
References
11. Microwave Food Processing: Principles and Applications
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Principles of Microwave Heating. 11.2.1 Nature of Microwaves. 11.2.1.1 Propagation of EM Waves in Free Space
11.2.1.2 Propagation of EM Waves in Matter
11.2.2 Mechanism of Microwave Heating. 11.2.2.1 Dielectric Characteristic of a Material
11.2.2.2 Waves-Product Interactions
11.2.3 Transmission and Absorption of a Wave in a Material. 11.2.3.1 Expression of Transmitted Power
11.2.3.2 Penetration Depths
11.2.3.3 Power Dissipation
11.3 Applications. 11.3.1 Microwave Baking
11.3.2 Microwave Blanching
11.3.3 Microwave Tempering and Thawing
11.3.4 Microwave Drying
11.3.4.1 Microwave-Assisted Hot Air Drying
11.3.4.2 Microwave-Assisted Vacuum Drying
11.3.4.3 Microwave-Assisted Freeze-Drying
11.3.5 Microwave Pasteurization and Sterilization
References
12. Infrared Radiation: Principles and Applications in Food Processing
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Mechanism of Heat Transfer
12.2.1 Principles of IR Heating
12.2.1.1 Planck’s Law
12.2.1.2 Wien’s Displacement Law
12.2.1.3 Stefan–Boltzmann’s Law
12.2.2 Source of IR Radiations
12.2.2.1 Natural Source
12.2.2.2 Artificial Sources
12.3 Factors Affecting the Absorption of Energy
12.3.1 Characteristics of Food Materials
12.3.1.1 Composition
12.3.1.2 Layer Thickness
12.3.2 IR Parameters
12.3.2.1 Wavelength of IR Rays
12.3.2.2 IR Intensity
12.3.2.3 Depth of Penetration
12.3.3 Advantages of IR Heating Over Conventional Heating Methods
12.4 Applications of IR in Food Processing
12.4.1 Drying
12.4.2 Peeling
12.4.3 Blanching
12.4.4 Microbial Decontamination
12.5 IR-Assisted Hybrid Drying Technologies
12.5.1 IR-Freeze-Drying
12.5.2 Hot Air-Assisted IR Heating
12.5.3 Low-Pressure Superheated Steam Drying with IR
12.6 Conclusion
References
13. Radiofrequency Heating
13.1 Introduction
13.2 History of RF Heating
13.3 Principles and Equipment. 13.3.1 Basic Mechanism of Dielectric Heating
13.3.1.1 Basic Mechanism and Working of Radiofrequency Heating
13.3.1.2 Basic Mechanism and Working of Microwave Heating
13.3.2 Factors of Food Affecting the Performance of RF Processing
13.3.2.1 Permittivity and Loss Factor
13.3.2.2 Power Density and Penetration Depth
13.3.2.3 Wave Impedance and Power Reflection
13.3.3 Comparison of RF Heating With Other Methods
13.3.4 Lab Scale and Commercial Scale of RF Equipment
13.3.4.1 Radiofrequency Processing of Food at Lab Scale
13.3.4.2 Radiofrequency Processing of Food at Industrial Scale
13.4 Applications in Food Processing
13.4.1 Drying
13.4.2 Thawing
13.4.3 Roasting
13.4.4 Baking
13.4.5 Disinfestation
13.4.6 Blanching
13.4.7 Pasteurization/Sterilization
13.5 Technological Constraints, Health Hazards, and Safety Aspects
13.6 Commercialization Aspects and Future Trends
13.7 Conclusions
References
14. Quality, Food Safety and Role of Technology in Food Industry
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Food Quality
14.1.1.1 Primary and Secondary Food Processing
14.1.1.2 Historical Trends in Food Quality
14.1.1.3 Food Quality Standards and its Requirements
14.1.1.4 Role of Technology in Building Food Quality Within the Industry
14.1.1.5 Regulations and Their Requirements
14.1.2 Food Safety. 14.1.2.1 Primary and Secondary Food Production
14.1.2.2 Historical Trends in Food Safety
14.1.2.3 Food Safety Standards and its Requirements
14.1.2.4 Role of Technology in Building Food Safety Within Industry
14.2 Future Trends in Quality and Food Safety
14.3 Conclusion
References
Index
Also of Interest. Other Books in the series, “Bioprocessing in Food Science”
Other related titles from Scrivener Publishing
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