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Pascal Ribéreau-Gayon. Handbook of Enology: Volume 1
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Handbook of Enology
THE MICROBIOLOGY OF WINE AND VINIFICATIONS
FOREWORD
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
REMARKS CONCERNING THE EXPRESSION OF CERTAIN PARAMETERS OF MUST AND WINE COMPOSITION. Units
Expression of Total Acidity and Volatile Acidity
Evaluating the Sugar Concentration of Musts
Measurements Using Visible and Ultraviolet Spectrometry
CHAPTER 1 Yeasts
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Cell Wall. 1.2.1 The General Role of the Cell Wall
1.2.2 The Chemical Structure and Function of the Cell Wall Constituents
1.2.3 General Organization of the Cell Wall and Factors Affecting Its Composition
1.3 The Plasma Membrane
1.3.1 Chemical Composition and Organization
1.3.2 Functions of the Plasma Membrane
1.4 The Cytoplasm and Its Organelles
1.4.1 Cytosol
1.4.2 The ER, the Golgi Apparatus, and theVacuoles
1.4.3 The Mitochondria
1.5 The Nucleus
1.6 Reproduction and the Yeast Biological Cycle
1.6.1 Vegetative Reproduction
1.6.2 Sexual Reproduction
1.7 The Killer Phenomenon. 1.7.1 Introduction
1.7.2 Physiology and Genetics of the Killer Phenomenon
1.7.3 The Role of the Killer Phenomenon in Winemaking
1.8 Classification of Yeast Species. 1.8.1 General Remarks
1.8.2 Evolution of the General Principles of Yeast Taxonomy and Species Delimitation
1.8.3 Successive Classifications of the Genus Saccharomyces and the Position of Wine Yeasts in the Current Classification
1.8.4 Interspecific Hybrids
1.9 Identification of Wine Yeast Strains. 1.9.1 General Principles
1.9.2 Mitochondrial DNA Analysis
1.9.3 Karyotype Analysis
1.9.4 Genomic DNA Restriction Profile Analysis Associated with DNA Hybridization by Specific Probes (Fingerprinting)
1.9.5 PCR Associated with δSequences
1.9.6 PCR with Microsatellites
1.9.7 Genome Sequencing
1.10 Ecology of Grape and Wine Yeasts. 1.10.1 Succession of Grape and Wine Yeast Species
1.10.2 The Ecology of S. cerevisiae Strains
References
CHAPTER 2 Yeast Metabolism
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sugar Degradation Pathways
2.2.1 Glycolysis
2.2.2 Alcoholic Fermentation
2.2.3 Glyceropyruvic Fermentation
2.2.4 Respiration
2.3 Regulation of Sugar‐Utilizing Metabolic Pathways
2.3.1 Regulation Between Fermentation and Respiration: Pasteur Effect and Crabtree Effect
2.3.2 Regulation Between Alcoholic Fermentation and Glyceropyruvic Fermentation: Glycerol Accumulation
2.3.3 Secondary Products Formed from Pyruvate by Glyceropyruvic Fermentation
2.3.4 Formation and Accumulation of Acetic Acid by Yeasts
2.3.5 Other Secondary Products of the Fermentation of Sugars
2.3.6 Degradation of Malic Acid by Yeast
2.4 Metabolism of Nitrogen Compounds
2.4.1 Amino Acid Synthesis Pathways
2.4.2 Assimilation Mechanisms of Ammonium and Amino Acids
2.4.3 Catabolism of Amino Acids
2.4.4 Formation of Higher Alcohols and Esters
References
CHAPTER 3 Conditions of Yeast Development
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Monitoring and Controlling Fermentations. 3.2.1 Counting Yeasts
3.2.2 Monitoring Fermentation Kinetics
3.2.3 Measuring Temperature
3.2.4 Fermentation Control Systems
3.2.5 Avoiding Foam Formation
3.3 Yeast Growth Cycle and Fermentation Kinetics
3.4 Nutrition Requirements
3.4.1 Carbon Supply
3.4.2 Nitrogen Supply
3.4.3 Mineral Requirements
3.5 Fermentation Activators
3.5.1 Growth Factors
3.5.2 Survival Factors
3.5.3 Other Fermentation Activators
3.5.4 Adding Yeast Starter
3.6 Inhibition of Fermentation
3.6.1 Inhibition by Ethanol
3.6.2 Inhibition by Fermentation By‐Products: Use of Yeast Hulls
3.6.3 Inhibition from Different Origins
3.7 Physicochemical Factors Affecting Yeast Growth and Fermentation Kinetics
3.7.1 Effect of Temperature
3.7.2 Influence of Oxygen: Effect of Must Aeration
3.7.3 Effect of Must Clarification on White Grapes
3.8 Stuck Fermentations
3.8.1 Causes of Stuck Fermentations
3.8.2 Consequences of Stuck Fermentations
3.8.3 Action in Case of a Stuck Fermentation
References
CHAPTER 4 Lactic Acid Bacteria
4.1 The Different Components of the Bacteria Cell
4.1.1 The Cell Wall
4.1.2 The Plasma Membrane
4.1.3 The Cytoplasm
4.1.4 The Genetic Material
4.1.5 Reproduction of Bacteria
4.2 Taxonomy of Lactic Acid Bacteria. 4.2.1 Bacterial Species
4.2.2 Classification of Lactic Acid Bacteria in Wine
4.3 Identification of Lactic Acid Bacteria. 4.3.1 General Principles
4.3.2 Phenotypic Analysis
Microscopic observation
Analysis of metabolism
Fatty acid and protein composition
4.3.3 Methods of Genotypic Analysis
Determining G + C percentage
DNA–DNA hybridization: species identification
DNA–DNA hybridization using probes: detecting species or strains carrying specific genes
REA‐PFGE: identification of strains
Polymerase chain reaction
Specific PCR: detection of species or strains possessing specific genes
Quantitative PCR
PCR and sequencing of the 16S RNA gene: species identification
PCR RAPD and PCR VNTR: strain identification
PCR‐DGGE: simultaneous detection of several species
Genome sequencing: strain description and comparison
4.4 The Oenococcus oeni Species
References
CHAPTER 5 Metabolism of Lactic Acid Bacteria
5.1 Generalities: A Review
5.2 Metabolism of Sugars: Lactic Acid Fermentation
5.2.1 Homofermentative Metabolism of Hexoses
5.2.2 Heterofermentative Metabolism of Hexoses
5.2.3 Metabolism of Pentoses
5.3 Metabolism of the Principal Organic Acids of Wine
5.3.1 Transformation of Malic Acid
5.3.2 Metabolism of Citric Acid
5.3.3 Metabolism of Tartaric Acid
5.4 Other Transformations Likely to Occur in Winemaking. 5.4.1 Degradation of Glycerol
5.4.2 Formation of Biogenic Amines
5.4.3 Metabolism of Arginine
5.4.4 Synthesis of Exocellular Polysaccharides
5.5 Effect of the Metabolism of Lactic Acid Bacteria on Wine Composition and Quality
References
CHAPTER 6 Lactic Acid Bacteria Development in Wine
6.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria Nutrition in Wine
6.1.1 Energy Sources
6.1.2 Nutrients, Vitamins, and Trace Elements
6.2 Physicochemical Factors of Bacterial Growth
6.2.1 Influence of pH
6.2.2 Effect of Sulfur Dioxide
6.2.3 Influence of Ethanol
6.2.4 Effect of Temperature
6.2.5 Effects of Phenolic Compounds
6.2.6 Effect of Oxygen
6.2.7 Adaptation of Lactic Acid Bacteria to Growth in Wine
6.3 Evolution of Lactic Acid Bacteria Microflora: Influence on Wine Composition
6.3.1 Evolution of the Total Lactic Acid Bacteria Population
6.3.2 VBNC Bacteria
6.3.3 Evolution of Various Bacterial Species
6.3.4 Evolution of Wine Composition During the Different Phases of Bacterial Development
6.4 Microbial Interactions During Winemaking
6.4.1 Interactions Between Yeasts and Lactic Acid Bacteria
6.4.2 Interactions Between Lactic Acid Bacteria
6.5 The Importance of Bacteriophages
References
CHAPTER 7 Acetic Acid Bacteria
7.1 Principal Characteristics and Cytology
7.2 Classification and Identification. 7.2.1 Classification
7.2.2 Isolation and Identification
7.3 Principal Physiological Characteristics
7.4 Metabolism of Acetic Acid Bacteria
7.4.1 Metabolism of Sugars
7.4.2 Metabolism of Ethanol
7.4.3 Metabolism of Lactic Acid and Glycerol
7.4.4 Formation of Acetoin
7.5 Acetic Acid Bacteria Development in Grape Musts
7.6 Evolution of Acetic Acid Bacteria During Winemaking and Wine Aging and the Impact on Wine Quality
References
CHAPTER 8 The Use of Sulfur Dioxide in Must and Wine Treatment
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Physiological Effects
8.3 Chemistry of Sulfur Dioxide. 8.3.1 Free Sulfur Dioxide
8.3.2 Bound Sulfur Dioxide
8.4 Molecules Binding Sulfur Dioxide. 8.4.1 Acetaldehyde
8.4.2 Keto Acids
8.4.3 Sugars and Sugar Derivatives
8.4.4 Dicarbonyl Group Molecules
8.4.5 Other Bound Forms
8.4.6 The Sulfur Dioxide Binding Balance in Wines Made from Botrytized Grapes
8.5 Practical Consequences: The State of Sulfur Dioxide in Wines
8.5.1 Equilibrium Reactions
8.5.2 Influence of Temperature
8.5.3 Empirical Laws of Binding
8.6 Antimicrobial Properties of Sulfur Dioxide
8.6.1 Properties of the Different Forms
8.6.2 Antifungal Activities
8.6.3 Antibacterial Activities
8.7 The Role of Sulfur Dioxide in Winemaking. 8.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages
8.7.2 Protection Against Oxidation
8.7.3 Inhibition, Activation, and Selection of Yeasts
8.7.4 Selection Between Yeasts and Bacteria
8.7.5 Dissolving Power and General Effects on Taste
8.8 The Use of Sulfur Dioxide in the Winery. 8.8.1 Winemaking Concentrations
8.8.2 Storage and Bottling Concentrations
8.8.3 Diminution of Sulfur Dioxide by Oxidation During Storage
8.8.4 The Forms of Sulfur Dioxide Used
8.8.5 Sulfiting Wines by Sulfuring Barrels
References
Notes
CHAPTER 9 Products and Methods Complementing the Effect of Sulfur Dioxide
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sorbic Acid. 9.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties
9.2.2 Antimicrobial Properties
9.2.3 Stability and Sensory Impact
9.2.4 Use of Sorbic Acid
9.3 Octanoic and Decanoic Acids (Saturated Short‐Chain Fatty Acids)
9.4 Dimethyl Dicarbonate (DMDC)
9.5 Lysozyme. 9.5.1 Nature and Properties
9.5.2 Applications of Lysozyme in Winemaking
Inhibiting malolactic fermentation in white wines
Delaying the development of lactic acid bacteria and malolactic fermentation in red wines
Use in cases of difficul talcoholic fermentation
Microbiological stabilization after malolactic fermentation
Use and labeling of wines treated with lysozyme
9.6 Destruction of Yeasts by Heat (Pasteurization) 9.6.1 Introduction
9.6.2 Theoretical Data on the Heat Resistance of Wine Yeasts
9.6.3 Practical Applications
9.7 Ascorbic Acid. 9.7.1 Properties and Mode of Action
9.7.2 Protection Against Enzymatic Oxidations
9.7.3 Protection Against Iron Casse
9.7.4 Organoleptic Protection of Aerated Wines
9.8 The Use of Inert Gases. 9.8.1 Wine Storage Using Inert Gases
9.8.2 Adjusting the Carbon Dioxide Concentration
References
Reflections on Global Taste and Typicity of Wines
Conclusion
Bibliography
CHAPTER 10 The Grape and Its Maturation
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Description and Composition of the Mature Grape. 10.2.1 The Berry
10.2.2 Berry Formation
10.2.3 The Developmental Stages of the Grape
10.2.4 Grape Morphology
10.2.5 Grape Cluster Composition at Ripeness. Stalks
Seeds
Skin
Pulp
10.3 Changes in the Grape During Maturation. 10.3.1 General Characteristics of Maturation
10.3.2 Sugar Accumulation
10.3.3 Evolution of Organic Acids
Tartaric acid
Malic acid
10.3.4 Accumulation of Minerals
10.3.5 Evolution of Nitrogen Compounds
10.3.6 Changes in the Cell Wall
10.3.7 Production of Phenolic Compounds
10.3.8 Evolution of Aroma Substances
Terpene compounds
Norisoprenoid derivatives
Methoxypyrazines
S‐Conjugates, precursors of volatile thiols
10.4 Definition of Ripeness–Concept of Vintage
10.4.1 Ripeness
10.4.2 Sampling and Study of Maturation
10.4.3 Evaluation of Ripeness: Maturity Index
10.4.4 Effect of Light on the Biochemical Maturation Process
10.4.5 Influence of Temperature on the Biochemical Processes of Maturation
10.4.6 Impact of Grapevine Water Supply on Grape Ripening. Effect of water availability on the biochemical processes involved in grape ripening
Monitoring vine water levels
Impact of water status on grapevine growth and the composition of ripe grapes
Impact of grapevine water status on grape aroma potential
Impact of water deficit on early ripening
Water status and vintage effect
Ways of modifying water supply in a vineyard
10.4.7 Weather Conditions During the Year: The Idea of Vintage
10.5 Impact of Various Other Factors on Maturation and Grape Composition at Ripeness
10.5.1 Variety and Rootstock. Rootstock
Variety
Vine age
10.5.2 Soil Composition and Fertilization
Water supply
Nitrogen and potassium
Salty soils
Expression of terroir
10.5.3 Leaf Treatments, Phytosanitary Protection, and Aroma Composition
10.5.4 Management of Vine Growth
10.5.5 Vineyard Practices for Vigor Control
Winter pruning
Crop thinning
Trimming
Leaf thinning
10.5.6 Effects of Disease and Adverse Weather
10.6 Botrytis cinerea. 10.6.1 Gray Rot and Noble Rot
10.6.2 Grape Sensitivity to Botrytis cinerea
10.6.3 Noble Rot Infection Process
10.6.4 Changes in the Chemical Composition of Noble Rot Grapes
Glucose and fructose
Acids
Nitrogen substances
Phenolic compounds
Aroma substances
10.6.5 Gray Rot and Other Kinds of Rot
Gray rot
Sour rot and acid rot
10.6.6 Evaluating the Soundness of the Harvest
References
CHAPTER 11 Harvest and Pre‐fermentation Treatments
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Improving Grape Quality by Overripening
11.2.1 On‐vine Grape Drying
11.2.2 Off‐vine Grape Drying
11.2.3 Artificial Drying
11.3 Harvest Date and Operations
11.3.1 Grape Harvest
11.3.2 Harvest Transport
11.3.3 Cleaning and Sorting the Grape Crop
11.3.4 Grape Selection and Selective Must Extraction by Low‐Temperature Pressing
11.4 Acidity Adjustments of the Harvested Grapes
11.4.1 Acidification
11.4.2 Deacidification
11.5 Increasing Sugar Concentrations
11.5.1 Subtractive Techniques
Vacuum concentration
Reverse osmosis
11.5.2 Additive Techniques
Chaptalization
Rectified concentrated must
Concentrated must
11.6 Enzymatic Transformations of the Grape After Harvest
11.6.1 Hydrolytic Enzymes. Proteases
Pectolytic enzymes
Glycosidases
11.6.2 Oxidation Enzymes. Oxygenases
Oxidoreductases
Peroxidases
11.7 Use of Commercial Enzymes in Winemaking
11.7.1 Juice Extraction
11.7.2 Must Clarification
11.7.3 Color Extraction and Stabilization
11.7.4 Freeing of Aromas
References
CHAPTER 12 Red Winemaking
12.1 Generalities
12.2 Mechanical Processing of the Harvested Grapes. 12.2.1 Harvest Reception
12.2.2 Crushing
12.2.3 Destemming
12.3 Tank Filling
12.3.1 Tank Filling and Related Operations
12.3.2 Principal Tank Systems
12.3.3 Fermentor Construction
12.3.4 Fermentor Equipment
12.4 Controlling Alcoholic Fermentation. 12.4.1 Effect of Ambient Conditions
12.4.2 Pump‐Overs and Must Aeration
12.4.3 Monitoring the Fermentation Process: Determining Its Completion
12.5 Maceration
12.5.1 The Role of Maceration
12.5.2 Different Types of Maceration
12.5.3 Principles of Maceration
12.5.4 Influence of Maceration Time
12.5.5 Influence of Pump‐overs (Remontage) and Punchdowns (Pigeage)
12.5.6 Influence of Temperature
12.5.7 Effect of Grape Sulfiting and Alcohol Produced by Fermentation
12.5.8 Impact of Various Mechanical and Physical Processes Acting Directly on the Pomace (Flash Détente) and Pulsed Electric Fields
12.5.9 The Maceration Process: Grape Quality and Tannin Concentrations in Wines. Grape quality
Wine tannin concentration
12.6 Draining Off the Skins and Pressing
12.6.1 Choosing the Moment for Draining Off the Skins
12.6.2 Premature Fermentor Draining Due to External Factors
12.6.3 Draining the Free‐Run Wine into Tanks or Barrels
12.6.4 Pressing the Pomace
12.6.5 Composition and Use of Press Wines
12.7 Malolactic Fermentation
12.7.1 History
12.7.2 Wine Transformations by Malolactic Fermentation
12.7.3 Monitoring Malolactic Fermentation
12.7.4 Conditions Required for Malolactic Fermentation
Influence of acidity (Section 6.2.1 )
Influence of temperature (Section 6.2.4 )
Influence of aeration (Section 6.2.5 )
Influence of sulfiting (Section 6.2.2 )
12.7.5 Malolactic Fermentation Inoculation
Inoculating must before alcoholic fermentation
Inoculating with non‐proliferating bacteria
Inoculating with commercial Oenococcus oeni preparations after reactivation
Inoculating with commercial Oenococcus oeni preparations not requiring a reactivation phase: Direct inoculation of starters in wine
12.8 Automated Red Winemaking Methods. 12.8.1 Introduction
12.8.2 Continuous Winemaking
12.8.3 Thermovinification: Heating the Harvest
12.9 Carbonic Maceration
12.9.1 Principles
12.9.2 Gaseous Exchanges
12.9.3 Anaerobic Metabolism
12.9.4 Grape Transformations by Carbonic Maceration
12.9.5 Microbiology of Carbonic Maceration
12.9.6 Using Carbonic Maceration
12.9.7 Characteristics of Wines Made by Carbonic Maceration
References
CHAPTER 13 White Winemaking
13.1 Distinctive Characteristics of White Winemaking
13.1.1 The Essential Role of Pre‐fermentation Operations in Dry White Winemaking
13.1.2 White Wine Diversity and Current Styles
Neutral white wines
Chardonnays
Sauvignon Blancs
Aromatic white wines
13.2 White Grape Quality and Picking Criteria
13.2.1 Grape Soundness
13.2.2 Maturity and Setting the Harvest Date
13.2.3 Harvest
13.3 Juice Extraction. 13.3.1 General Principles
13.3.2 Immediate Continuous Extraction
13.3.3 Immediate Batch Extraction Without Crushing
13.3.4 Advisability of Crushing and Destemming with Immediate Extraction
13.3.5 Maceration or Skin Contact
13.3.6 Cryoselection and Supraextraction
13.4 Protecting Juice from Oxidation
13.4.1 Traditional and Current Techniques
13.4.2 Mechanisms of Juice Oxidation
13.4.3 Techniques for Protecting Juice from Oxidation
13.5 Clarification
13.5.1 Formation and Composition of Suspended Solids and Lees
13.5.2 Influence of Clarification on Dry White Wine Composition
13.5.3 Effect of Clarification on Fermentation Kinetics
13.5.4 Clarification Methods
13.5.5 Clarification Methods for Grape Solids Deposits
13.6 Juice Treatments and the Advisability of Bentonite Treatments
13.7 Fermentation Operations. 13.7.1 Tank Filling
13.7.2 Yeast Inoculation
13.7.3 Addition of Nitrogen Sources and Juice Aeration
13.7.4 Temperature Control
13.7.5 Completion of Alcoholic Fermentation
13.7.6 Malolactic Fermentation
13.8 Making Dry White Wines in Barrels. 13.8.1 Principles
13.8.2 The Role of Exocellular and Yeast Cell Wall Colloids
13.8.3 Oxidation–Reduction Phenomena Linked to the Presence of Lees
13.8.4 Nature of Volatile Substances Released by Wood and Their Transformation by Yeasts
13.8.5 White Wine Barrel‐Aging Techniques
13.9 Controlling Reduction Off‐Aromas During White Wine Aging. 13.9.1 Evolution of Volatile Sulfur Compounds in Dry White Wine During Barrel or Tank Aging
13.9.2 Aging Dry White Wine in a High‐Capacity Tank on the Lees
References
CHAPTER 14 Other Winemaking Methods
14.1 Rosé Wines. 14.1.1 Definition
14.1.2 Importance of Color in Characterizing the Various Types of Rosé Wines
14.1.3 Rosé Winemaking by Direct Pressing
14.1.4 Making Rosé Wines by Skin Contact or Saignée Method
14.2 Botrytized Sweet Wines (Sauternes and Tokaji) 14.2.1 Introduction
14.2.2 Noble Rot
14.2.3 Composition of Musts Made from Grapes Affected by Noble Rot (Section 10.6.3 ) and the Resulting Wines
14.2.4 Noble Rot Juice Extraction. Pressing grapes
Cold pressing (cryoextraction)
Sulfiting juice
Juice clarification, bentonite treatment, and juice corrections
14.2.5 Fermentation Process. Fermentation difficulties
Stopping fermentation (mutage)
14.2.6 Aging and Stabilization
14.2.7 Tokaji Wine
14.3 Champagne and Sparkling Wines. 14.3.1 Introduction
14.3.2 Fermenting Base Wines. Principles
Pressing and extracting the must
Must clarification and fermentation
Malolactic fermentation
14.3.3 Secondary Fermentation in Bottle: The Champagne Method. Preparing and bottling a cuvée
Secondary alcoholic fermentation and aging on the lees
Riddling and removing the yeast sediment
Disgorging and final corking
14.3.4 Composition of Champagne Wines. Analysis of Champagne wines
Effervescence in Champagne wines
14.3.5 Other Secondary Fermentation Processes. Transfer method
The Charmat (closed tank) method
Asti Spumante
14.4 Fortified Wines
14.4.1 Introduction
14.4.2 French Fortified Wines (Vins Doux Naturels) Definition
Winemaking
Fortification (Mutage)
Conservation and aging
14.4.3 Port Wines. Production conditions
Maturation and characteristics of Port wines
14.5 Flor Wines. 14.5.1 Definition
14.5.2 Sherry Wines. Production conditions
Biological aging principles for flor yeasts
Wine transformations during biological aging
Oxidative aging of oloroso wines
14.5.3 Vins Jaunes (Yellow Wines) from Jura
References
INDEX
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