Оглавление
Pascal Ribéreau-Gayon. Handbook of Enology, Volume 2
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Handbook of Enology
THE CHEMISTRY OF WINE STABILIZATION AND TREATMENTS
FOREWORD
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
REMARKS CONCERNING THE EXPRESSION OF CERTAIN PARAMETERS OF MUST AND WINE COMPOSITION. Units
Expression of Total Acidity and Volatile Acidity
Evaluating the Sugar Concentration of Musts
Measurements Using Visible and Ultraviolet Spectrometry
CHAPTER 1 Organic Acids in Wine
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Main Organic Acids. 1.2.1 Steric Configuration of Organic Acids
1.2.2 Organic Acids in Grapes
1.2.3 Organic Acids from Fermentation
1.3 Different Types of Acidity
1.3.1 Total Acidity
1.3.2 Volatile Acidity
1.3.3 Fixed Acidity
1.4 The Concept of pH and Its Applications. 1.4.1 Definition
1.4.2 Expression of pH in Wine
1.4.3 The “Buffer” Capacity of Musts and Wines
1.4.4 Applying Buffer Capacity to the Acidification and Deacidification of Wine
1.5 Tartrate Precipitation Mechanism and Predicting Its Effects
1.5.1 Principle
1.5.2 Tartrate Crystallization and Precipitation
1.5.3 Using Electrical Conductivity to Monitor Tartrate Precipitation
1.6 Tests for Predicting Wine Stability. 1.6.1 The Refrigerator Test
1.6.2 The Mini‐Contact Test
1.6.3 The Wurdig Test and the Concept of Saturation Temperature in Wine
1.6.4 Relationship Between Saturation Temperature and Stabilization Temperature in Wine
1.6.5 Applying the Relationship Between Saturation Temperature (TSat) and Stabilization Temperature (TCS) to Wine in Full‐Scale Production
1.6.6 Using Mextar® Calculation Software
1.7 Preventing Tartrate Precipitation
1.7.1 Introduction
1.7.2 Slow Cold Stabilization, Without Tartrate Crystal Seeding
1.7.3 Rapid Cold Stabilization: Static Contact Process
1.7.4 Rapid Cold Stabilization: Dynamic Continuous Contact Process
1.7.5 Preventing Calcium Tartrate Problems
1.7.6 The Use of Metatartaric Acid
1.7.7 Using Yeast Mannoproteins
1.7.8 The Use of Carboxymethylcellulose
References
CHAPTER 2 Alcohols and Other Volatile Compounds
2.1 Ethanol
2.2 Other Simple Alcohols
2.2.1 Methanol
2.2.2 Higher Alcohols of Fermentation Origin
2.2.3 Miscellaneous Alcohols
2.3 Polyols
2.3.1 C3 Polyol: Glycerol
2.3.2 C4 Polyols: 2,3‐Butanediol and Erythritol
2.3.3 C5 Polyol: Arabitol
2.3.4 C6 Polyols: Mannitol, Sorbitol, and meso‐Inositol
2.4 Aliphatic FattyAcids
2.5 Esters
2.5.1 Ethyl Acetate
2.5.2 Fatty Acid Ethyl Esters and Higher Alcohol Acetates
2.5.3 Substituted Acid Ethyl Esters
Alkyl substituted short‐chain fatty acid ethyl esters
Hydroxycarboxylic acid ethyl esters
Alkyl substituted hydrocarboxylic acid ethyl esters
2.5.4 Esters of Chemical Origin
2.6 Miscellaneous Compounds
2.6.1 Carbonyl Compounds (Aldehydes and Ketones)
2.6.2 Acetals
2.6.3 Lactones
References
CHAPTER 3 Carbohydrates
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Glucose and Fructose. 3.2.1 Presence in Grapes and Wine
3.2.2 Chemical Structure
3.3 Other Sugars. 3.3.1 Simple Sugars
3.3.2 Disaccharides
3.4 Chemical Properties of Sugars
3.4.1 Specific Properties
3.4.2 Reduction of Alkaline Copper Solutions (Fehling's Solution)
3.4.3 Chemical Identification by Adding Phenylhydrazine
3.4.4 Methylation and Acetylation Reactions Producing Volatile Derivatives Identifiable by Gas Chromatography
3.5 Sugar Derivatives
3.5.1 Glycosides
3.5.2 Oxidation Products
3.6 Pectic Substances in Grapes. 3.6.1 Terminology and Monomer Composition of Pectic Substances
3.6.2 Variations in Total Polysaccharides in Must During Ripening
3.6.3 Molecular Structures of Pectic Substances in Must
Acidic pectic substances in grape must
Neutral pectic substances in grape must
3.6.4 Molecular Structures of Pectic Substances in Wine
3.6.5 Impact of Pectic Substances on Wine Character
3.7 Exocellular Polysaccharides from Microorganisms
3.7.1 Exocellular Polysaccharides from Yeast
3.7.2 Polysaccharides from Botrytis cinerea
3.7.3 Polysaccharides Involved in Ropiness
3.7.4 Polysaccharides from Malolactic Bacteria
References
CHAPTER 4 Dry Extract and Minerals
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Dry Extract
4.3 Ash. 4.3.1 Preparing Ash
4.3.2 Assaying the Alkalinity of Ash
4.4 Inorganic Anions
4.5 Inorganic Cations
4.6 Iron and the Iron Casse Mechanism. 4.6.1 Presence and State of Iron in Wine
4.6.2 Iron Casse Mechanism
4.6.3 Citric Acid and Gum Arabic Treatment
4.6.4 Ascorbic Acid Treatment
4.6.5 Potassium Ferrocyanide Treatment
4.6.6 Calcium Phytate Treatment
4.7 Copper and Copper Casse. 4.7.1 Presence and State of Copper in Wine
4.7.2 Copper Casse Mechanisms
4.7.3 Preventing Copper Casse
4.8 Heavy Metals. 4.8.1 Definition
4.8.2 Arsenic
4.8.3 Cadmium
4.8.4 Mercury
4.8.5 Lead
4.8.6 Zinc
References
CHAPTER 5 Nitrogen Compounds
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Various Forms of Nitrogen. 5.2.1 Total Nitrogen
5.2.2 Mineral Nitrogen
5.2.3 The Various Forms of Organic Nitrogen
5.3 Amino Acids. 5.3.1 Structure
5.3.2 Presence in Must and Wine
5.3.3 Oligopeptides
5.4 Other Forms of Nitrogen. 5.4.1 Urea
5.4.2 Ethyl Carbamate
5.4.3 Biogenic Amines
5.5 Proteins and Protein Haze
5.5.1 Proteins
5.5.2 The Protein Haze Mechanism
5.5.3 Winemaking Techniques That Enhance the Protein Content of Must
5.5.4 Protein Stability Tests
5.6 Preventing Protein Haze. 5.6.1 Principle of Stabilization Treatments to Prevent Protein Haze
5.6.2 Using Bentonites to Eliminate Proteins
5.6.3 Possible Substitutes for Bentonite Treatment
5.6.4 Enhanced Protein Stability of Lees‐Aged White Wines
References
CHAPTER 6 Phenolic Compounds
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Types of Substances
6.2.1 Phenolic Acids and Their Derivatives
6.2.2 Flavonoids
6.2.3 Anthocyanins
6.2.4 Tannins
6.3 Chemical Properties of Anthocyanins and Tannins. 6.3.1 Properties of Phenols
6.3.2 Anthocyanin Equilibrium Depending on pH and SO2
6.3.3 Anthocyanin Breakdown Reactions
Thermal degradation of anthocyanins
Oxidative degradation of anthocyanins
Degradation of anthocyanins by ketones
6.3.4 Reactions Involving Tannins with Protein and Polysaccharide Polymers
6.3.5 Formation of Carbocations from Procyanidins
6.3.6 Procyanidin Oxidation Reactions
6.3.7 Procyanidin Polymerization Reactions
6.3.8 Anthocyanin Copigmentation Reactions
6.3.9 Reactions Between Compounds with Polarized Double Bonds and Anthocyanins
6.3.10 Anthocyanin and Tannin Condensation Reactions
6.4 Anthocyanin and Tannin Assays: Sensory Properties
6.4.1 Assessing the Phenol Content of Red and White Wines
Folin–Ciocalteu index
OD 280 value
6.4.2 Anthocyanin Assay
6.4.3 Tannin Assay
6.4.4 Analyzing the Characteristics of Tannins
Polymer composition
HCl index
Dialysis index
Gelatin index
6.4.5 Wine Color
6.4.6 Fractionation of Phenolic Compounds in Grapes and Wine
Red wine
Grapes
6.4.7 Organoleptic Properties of the Phenolic Compounds in Red Wines
6.5 Evolution of Anthocyanins and Tannins as Grapes Ripen. 6.5.1 The Location of Various Phenolic Compounds in Grapes
6.5.2 Evolution of Anthocyanins and Tannins as Grapes Ripen. Changes in concentration
Development of molecular structures
6.5.3 The Concept of Phenolic Maturity
6.5.4 Methods for Measuring Phenolic Maturity
The principle
The procedure
6.6 Extracting Tannins and Anthocyanins During Winemaking. 6.6.1 Extracting Pigments During Maceration
6.6.2 Adapting Winemaking to Various Factors
6.7 Chemical Reactions Occurring During Bulk and Bottle Aging. 6.7.1 Reactions Essentially Involving Anthocyanins and Their Effect on Color
Direct reactions
Indirect reactions
6.7.2 Reactions Essentially Involving Tannins and Their Effects on Flavor
6.7.3 Reactions During Bulk and Bottle Aging
6.8 Precipitation of Coloring Matter (Color Stability) 6.8.1 Precipitation of Coloring Matter in Young Wines
6.8.2 Precipitation of Coloring Matter in Old Wines
6.9 Origin of the Color of White Wines. 6.9.1 Phenolic Compounds in White Wines
6.9.2 Contribution of the Various Components to the Color of White Wines
References
CHAPTER 7 Varietal Aroma
7.1 The General Concept of Varietal Aroma. 7.1.1 General Information on Wine Aroma
7.1.2 Varietal Aroma Compounds
7.2 Terpene Compounds
7.2.1 Volatile Terpenes
7.2.2 Mechanisms Involved in the Monoterpene Composition of Grapes and Wine
7.2.3 Glycosylated Forms of Volatile Terpene Alcohols
7.2.4 Enhancing the Glycosylated Aroma Potential of Grapes
7.3 C13‐Norisoprenoid Derivatives
7.3.1 Volatile C13‐Norisoprenoid Derivatives
7.3.2 Precurors of C13‐Norisoprenoid Derivatives
7.4 Methoxypyrazines
7.5 Sulfur Compounds with a Thiol Function
7.5.1 Aromatic Volatile Thiols Involved in the Varietal Aromas of Wines
7.5.2 Precursors of Varietal Volatile Thiols
7.5.3 The Release of Volatile Thiols from Precursor Forms During Alcoholic Fermentation
7.5.4 Non‐Varietal Volatile Thiols Appearing During Aging or Formed During Alcoholic Fermentation
7.6 Furanones
7.7 Lactones
7.8 Aromas of American Species
References
CHAPTER 8 Main Sensory Defects: Chemical Nature, Origins and Consequences
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Oxidative Defects. 8.2.1 Role of Oxidation
8.2.2 Oxidation “Buffer” Capacity
8.2.3 Staleness
8.3 Effect of Various Forms of Bacterial Spoilage. 8.3.1 Formation of Volatile Acidity by Bacteria
8.3.2 Spoilage Caused by Lactic Bacteria
8.3.3 Spoilage Caused by Acetic Acid Bacteria
8.3.4 Mycodermic Yeast Contamination (Flowers of Wine)
8.4 Microbiological Origin and Properties of Volatile Phenols. 8.4.1 Volatile Phenols Responsible for Off‐Odors in Wines Known Collectively as the “Phenolic” Character
8.4.2 Enzyme Mechanisms Responsible for the Production of Vinylphenols by Saccharomyces cerevisiae
8.4.3 Influence of Winemaking Parameters on the Vinylphenol Concentrations of White Wines
8.4.4 Conditions and Frequency of Ethylphenol Defects in Red Wines
8.4.5 Microbiological Origin and Synthesis Pathways of Ethylphenols in Red Wines
8.4.6 Impact of Barrel Aging Conditions on the Ethylphenol Content of Red Wines
8.5 Cork Taint
8.5.1 Cork‐Related Contamination in Wine
8.5.2 Wine Contamination from Storage Premises
8.6 Sulfur Derivatives and Reduction Odors. 8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Volatile Sulfur Compounds Produced by Yeast Metabolism
8.6.3 Volatile Sulfur Compounds from Vine Sprays
8.6.4 Heat‐Generated Volatile Sulfur Compounds
8.6.5 Photochemical Origin of Volatile Sulfur Compounds
8.7 Premature Aging of Wine Aroma
8.7.1 Premature Aging of White Wines. Nature of defect and molecules responsible for defective aging aroma
Impact of aging conditions on the defective aging of dry white wines
The role of glutathione in the premature aging of white wines
8.7.2 Premature Aging of Red Wines
8.8 Sensory Defects Associated with Grapes Affected by Various Types of Rot. 8.8.1 Types of Defects Associated with Rot
8.8.2 The Compound Responsible for the Main Earthy Off‐Odor: (−) Geosmin
8.8.3 Other Off‐Odors Associated with Rot on Harvested Grapes
8.9 MiscellaneousDefects. 8.9.1 The Breakdown of Sorbic Acid and the Geranium Off‐Odor
8.9.2 Mousiness
8.9.3 Bitter Almond Off‐Odor Caused by a Material in Contact with Wine
8.9.4 Eliminating Organoleptic Defects
References
CHAPTER 9 The Concept of Clarity and Colloidal Phenomena
9.1 Clarity and Stability. 9.1.1 Problems Related to Clarity
9.1.2 Observing Clarity
9.2 The Colloidal State
9.2.1 Classification of Dispersed Systems
9.2.2 Different Types of Colloids
9.2.3 Properties of Colloids
9.2.4 Electrical Charges on Colloidal Particles
9.3 Colloid Reactivity. 9.3.1 Colloid Stability and Flocculation
9.3.2 Stability and Flocculation of Macromolecular Colloids
9.3.3 Mutual Flocculation of Colloids
9.3.4 Adsorption Phenomena
9.4 Protective Colloids and Gum Arabic Treatment
9.4.1 Composition and Properties of Protective Colloids
9.4.2 Natural Protective Colloids in Wine
9.4.3 Using Gum Arabic to Stabilize Clarity
References
CHAPTER 10 Clarification and Stabilization Treatments: Fining Wine
10.1 Treating Wine
10.2 Sedimentation of Particles in Suspension. 10.2.1 Conditions for Sedimentation
10.2.2 Factors Affecting the Formation of Deposits
10.3 Racking: Role and Techniques
10.3.1 Role of Racking
10.3.2 Frequency of Racking
10.3.3 Racking Techniques
10.4 Theory of Protein Fining
10.4.1 Background Research
10.4.2 Measuring the Charges of Particles Involved in Fining
10.4.3 Applications in Fining Wine
10.5 Tannin–Protein Interactions
10.5.1 Description of Tannin–Protein Interactions
10.5.2 Influence of the Medium on Tannin–Protein Interactions
10.6 Effect of Fining on the Organoleptic Quality of Wine: Concept of Overfining
10.6.1 Effect of Fining on the Phenolic Compounds in Wine
10.6.2 Effect of Fining on Aroma
10.6.3 Overfining
10.7 Products Used in Fining. 10.7.1 Protein Fining Agents
10.7.2 Gelatins
10.7.3 Isinglass
10.7.4 Albumin and Egg White
10.7.5 Milk and Casein
10.7.6 Plant Proteins
10.7.7 Alkaline Alginates
10.7.8 Enological Tannins and Their Role in Fining
10.8 Fining Techniques
10.8.1 Preliminary Trials
10.8.2 Fining Procedures
10.9 Bentonite Treatment
10.9.1 Structure of Bentonite
10.9.2 Physicochemical Characteristics of Bentonites
10.9.3 Using Bentonite to Treat Wine
10.9.4 Bentonite Treatment Techniques
10.10 Miscellaneous Clarification Treatments
10.10.1 Properties of Silica Sols (Siligel, Klebosol)
10.10.2 Use of Silica Sols in Winemaking
10.10.3 Polyvinylpoly ‐pyrrolidone (PVPP) Treatment
References
CHAPTER 11 Clarifying Wine by Filtration and Centrifugation
11.1 Principles of Filtration
11.2 Laws of Filtration. 11.2.1 Introduction
11.2.2 Filtration with Sudden Clogging of the Pores
11.2.3 Filtration with Gradual Clogging of the Pores
11.2.4 Cake Filtration
11.2.5 Filtration with Intermediate Clogging of the Pores
11.3 Methods for Assessing Clarification Quality
11.3.1 Measuring Turbidity
11.3.2 Determining the Solids Content
11.3.3 Particle Counts
11.3.4 Microbiological Analyses
11.4 Filtration Equipment and Filter Aids
11.4.1 Properties
11.4.2 Cellulose
11.4.3 Diatomaceous Earth, or Kieselguhr
11.4.4 Perlite
11.4.5 Filter Pads and Lenticular Modules
11.4.6 Membranes
11.5 How Filter Layers Function. 11.5.1 Filtration Mechanisms
11.5.2 Effect of the Type of Turbidity
11.6 Filtration Through Diatomaceous Earth (or Kieselguhr) Precoats. 11.6.1 Introduction
11.6.2 Laboratory Filtration Tests with Diatomaceous Earth
11.6.3 Filtration Equipment
11.6.4 Preparing Filter Layers and Operating Filters
11.6.5 Operating a Plate‐and‐Frame Filter
11.6.6 Operating a Rotary Vacuum Filter
11.7 Filtration Through Cellulose‐Based Filter Pads. 11.7.1 Introduction
11.7.2 Preparing Wines for Pad Filtration
11.7.3 Selecting Filtration Parameters
11.7.4 Sterilizing the Filter Equipment
11.7.5 Lenticular Module Filtration
11.8 Membrane Filtration. 11.8.1 Introduction
11.8.2 Prefilter Cartridges
11.8.3 Preparing Wines for Filtration: Filtration Tests
11.8.4 Selecting Filtration Parameters
11.9 Crossflow Filtration
11.9.1 Principles
11.9.2 Applications in Winemaking
11.10 Effect of Filtration on the Composition and Organoleptic Character of Wine
11.10.1 Various Effects of Filtration
11.10.2 Modifications in Wine Composition and Their Effect on Flavor
11.10.3 Comparison of the Effects of Fining and Filtration
11.10.4 Filtration Prior to Bottling Fine Wines
11.11 Centrifugation. 11.11.1 Centrifugal Force
11.11.2 Industrial Centrifuges
11.11.3 Using Centrifugation to Treat Wine
References
CHAPTER 12 Stabilizing Wine by Physical and Physicochemical Processes
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Heat Stabilization
12.2.1 Preventing Certain Types of Colloidal Precipitation: Protein Haze and Copper Casse
12.2.2 Impact of Heating on Physicochemical Stabilization
12.2.3 Biological Stabilization by Heating
12.2.4 Practical Implementation of Heat Treatment
12.3 Wine Stabilization Through Physical Processes Under Development. 12.3.1 High Pressure
12.3.2 Pulsed Electric Fields
12.4 Cold Stabilization. 12.4.1 Aim of the Operation
12.4.2 Preventing Crystal Precipitation
12.4.3 Preventing Colloidal Precipitation
12.4.4 Cold Stabilization Procedures
12.5 Ion Exchangers
12.5.1 Operating Ion Exchangers
12.5.2 Possible Uses in Winemaking
12.5.3 Using Cation Exchangers to Treat Wine
12.5.4 Practical Implementation of Ion Exchange Resins
12.5.5 Conclusion
12.6 Electrodialysis Applications in Winemaking. 12.6.1 Operating Principle
12.6.2 Choice of Membranes
12.6.3 Tartrate Stability Test Used to Ensure Process Control
12.6.4 Operational Details
12.6.5 Changes in Wine Composition
References
CHAPTER 13 Aging Red Wines in Tanks and Barrels: Phenomena Occurring During Aging
13.1 Oxidation–Reduction Phenomena. 13.1.1 Introduction
13.1.2 General Review of Oxidation–Reduction Concepts
13.1.3 Measuring Dissolved Oxygen
13.2 Oxidation–Reduction Potential. 13.2.1 Measuring the Oxidation–Reduction Potential in a Simple Medium
13.2.2 Measuring the Oxidation–Reduction Potential in Wine
13.2.3 Correlation Between Dissolved Oxygen and Oxidation–Reduction Potential
13.3 Influence of Various Factors on Oxidation–Reduction Potential. 13.3.1 Influence of Oxidation–Reduction Agents
13.3.2 Influence of Compounds in Wine and Certain External Factors
13.3.3 Influence of Various Winemaking Operations
13.3.4 Impact of Aerating Wine
13.4 Development of the Phenolic Characteristics of Red Wines (Color and Flavor) During Aging. 13.4.1 Wine Development
13.4.2 Changes in Color Intensity
13.4.3 Development of a Yellow‐Orange Hue
13.4.4 Changes in Tannins Producing an Impression of Softness
13.4.5 Influence of External Conditions on the Development of Coloring Matter and Tannins
13.5 Evolution of Aromatic Thiol Composition in Red Wines During Aging
13.5.1 Kinetic Monitoring of 3‐Sulfanylhexanol Concentrations During the Aging of Red Wines
13.5.2 Study of Chemical Mechanisms Resulting in the Disappearance of 3‐SH in Red Wine. Kinetics of 3‐sulfanylhexanol disap‐pearance
Reactivity of phenolic fractions in wine with 3–sulfanylhexanol
Free sulfur dioxide concentration and stability of 3‐sulfanylhexanol in wine
13.6 Bottle Aging of Red Wines. 13.6.1 Aging Phenomena
13.6.2 Chemical Explanations
13.6.3 Development of the Bouquet
13.6.4 Accelerated Aging
13.7 Cellar Practices. 13.7.1 Cellar Hygiene
13.7.2 Hygiene Precautions for Wine Containers
13.7.3 Racking
13.7.4 Topping‐Up and Wine Loss
13.8 Barrel Aging of Red Wines. 13.8.1 Role of Barrel Aging
13.8.2 Oxidation–Reduction
13.8.3 Nonvolatile Compounds Extracted from Oak Barrels
13.8.4 Volatile Compounds Extracted from Oak Barrels
13.9 Effect of Barrel Type on the Development of Red Wine
13.9.1 Origins of the Wood
13.9.2 Influence of Seasoning Conditions
13.9.3 Impact of Barrel Toasting
13.9.4 Wine Flavoring Processes
13.10 Constraints and Risks of Barrel Aging
13.10.1 Adapting the Type of Oak to Different Wines
13.10.2 Risks Resulting from the Development of Microorganisms
References
INDEX
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