Оглавление
Paul Popenoe. Applied Eugenics
Applied Eugenics
Table of Contents
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
APPLIED EUGENICS
CHAPTER I
NATURE OR NURTURE?
Fig. 1.—These quadruplet daughters were born to Mr. and Mrs. F. M. Keys, Hollis, Okla., on July 4, 1915, and were seven months old when the photograph was taken. Up to that time they had never had any other nourishment than their mother's milk. Their weights at birth were as follows (reading from left to right): Roberta, 4 pounds; Mona, 4½ pounds; Mary, 4¼ pounds; Leota, 3¾ pounds. When photographed, Roberta weighed 16 pounds and each of the others weighed 16¼. Their aunt vouches for the fact that the care of the four is less trouble than a single baby often makes. The mother has had no previous plural births, although she has borne four children prior to these. Her own mother had but two children, a son and a daughter, and there is no record of twins on the mother's side. The father of the quadruplets is one of twelve children, among whom is one pair of twins. It is known that twinning is largely due to inheritance, and it would seem that the appearance of these quadruplets is due to the hereditary influence of the father rather than the mother. If this is the case, then the four girls must all have come from one egg-cell, which split up at an early stage. Note the uniform shape of the mouth, and the ears, set unusually low on the head
Fig. 2.—Corn of a single variety (Leaming Dent) grown in two plots: at the left spaced far apart in hills, at the right crowded. The former grows to its full potential height, the latter is stunted. The size differences in the two plots are due to differences in environment, the heredity in both cases being the same. Plants are much more susceptible to nutritional influences on size than are mammals, but to a less degree nutrition has a similar effect on man. Photograph from A. F. Blakeslee
Fig. 3.—An unusually short and an unusually tall man, photographed beside extreme varieties of corn which, like the men, owe their differences in height indisputably to heredity rather than to environment. No imaginable environmental differences could reverse the positions of these two men, or of these two varieties of corn, the heredity in each case being what it is. The large one might be stunted, but the small one could not be made much larger. Photograph from A. F. Blakeslee
Fig. 4.—Pedigree charts of the two men shown in the preceding illustration. Squares represent men and circles women; figures underlined denote measurement in stocking feet. It is obvious from a comparison of the ancestry of the two men that the short one comes from a predominantly short family, while the tall one gains his height likewise from heredity. The shortest individual in the right-hand chart would have been accounted tall in the family represented on the left. After A. F. Blakeslee
CHAPTER II
MODIFICATION OF THE GERM-PLASM
Fig. 5.—For centuries the feet of upper class women, and many lower class women, in China have been distorted in this manner; but their daughters have perfect feet when born
Fig. 6.—The above illustration shows the foot of a prehistoric Egyptian who is estimated to have lived about 8000 BC The last joint of the little toe had entirely disappeared, and careful dissection leaves no doubt that it was a germinal abnormality, such as is occasionally seen to-day, and not the result of disease. It is, therefore, evident that the degeneration of man's little toe must be ascribed to some more natural cause than the wearing of shoes for many generations. Photograph from Dr. Gorgy Sobhy, School of Medicine, Cairo
Fig. 7.—That lead poisoning can affect the germ plasm of rabbits is indicated by experiments conducted by Leon J. Cole at the University of Wisconsin. With reference to the above illustration, Professor Cole writes: "Each of the photographs shows two young from the same litter, in all cases the mother being a normal (nonpoisoned) albino. In each of the litters the white young is from an albino father which received the lead treatment, while the pigmented offspring is from a normal, homozygous, pigmented male. While these are, it is true, selected individuals, they represent what tend to be average, rather than extreme, conditions. The albino male was considerably larger than the pigmented male; nevertheless his young average distinctly smaller in size. Note also the brighter expression of the pigmented young."
CHAPTER III
DIFFERENCES AMONG MEN
Fig. 8.—The graph shows that 10-year-old children in Connecticut (1903) are to be found in every grade, from the first to the eighth. The greatest number is in the fourth grade, and the number who are advanced is just about the same as the number who are retarded
Fig. 9.—Diagram to show the standing of children in a single class in a New York City school, in respect to their ability in arithmetic. There are wide divergences in the scores they made
Fig. 10.—When deviations in all directions are equally probable, as in the case of shots fired at a target by an expert marksman, the "frequencies" will arrange themselves in the manner shown by the bullets in compartments above. A line drawn along the tops of these columns would be a "normal probability curve." Diagram by C. H. Popenoe
Fig. 13.—The above photograph (from A. F. Blakeslee), shows beans rolling down an inclined plane and accumulating in compartments at the base which are closed in front by glass. The exposure was long enough to cause the moving beans to appear as caterpillar-like objects hopping along the board. Assuming that the irregularity of shape of the beans is such that each may make jumps toward the right or toward the left, in rolling down the board, the laws of chance lead to the expectation that in very few cases will these jumps all be in the same direction, as is demonstrated by the few beans collected in the compartments at the extreme right and left. Rather the beans will tend to jump in both right and left directions, the most probable condition being that in which the beans make an equal number of jumps to the right and left, as is shown by the large number accumulated in the central compartment. If the board be tilted to one side, the curve of beans would be altered by this one-sided influence. In like fashion a series of factors—either of environment or of heredity—if acting equally in both favorable and unfavorable directions, will cause a group of men to form a similar variability curve, when classified according to their relative height
Fig. 14.—The above company of students at Connecticut Agricultural College was grouped according to height and photographed by A. F. Blakeslee. The height of each rank, and the number of men of that height, is shown by the figures underneath the photograph. The company constitutes what is technically known as a "population" grouped in "arrays of variates"; the middle rank gives the median height of the population; the tallest array (5 ft., 8 in.) is the mode. If a line be drawn connecting the upper ends of the rows, the resulting geometric figure will be a "scheme of distribution of variates" or more briefly a "variability curve," such as was shown in several preceding figures. The arrangement of homogeneous objects of any kind in such form as this is the first step in the study of variation by modern statistical methods, and on such study much of the progress of genetics depends
Fig. 15.—Height is one of the stock examples of a continuous character—one of which all grades can be found. As will be seen from the above diagram, every height from considerably under five feet to considerably over six feet can be found in the army, but extreme deviations are relatively rare in proportion to the amount of deviation. The vertical columns represent the total number of individuals of a given height in inches. From Davenport
CHAPTER IV
THE INHERITANCE OF MENTAL CAPACITIES
CHAPTER V
THE LAWS OF HEREDITY
Fig. 16.—If the hands be clasped naturally with fingers alternating, as shown in the above illustration, most people will put the same thumb—either that of the right or that of the left hand—uppermost every time. Frank E. Lutz showed (American Naturalist, xliii) that the position assumed depends largely on heredity. When both parents put the right thumb uppermost, about three-fourths of the children were found to do the same. When both parents put the left thumb uppermost, about three-fifths of the children did the same. No definite ratios could be found from the various kinds of matings. Apparently the manner of clasping hands has no connection with one's right-handedness or left-handedness. It can hardly be due to imitation for the trait is such a slight one that most people have not noticed it before their attention is called to it by the geneticist. Furthermore, babies are found almost always to clasp the hands in the same way every time. The trait is a good illustration of the almost incredible minuteness with which heredity enters into a man's make-up. Photograph by John Howard Paine
Fig. 17.—At the left is a hand with the third, fourth and fifth fingers affected. The middle joints of these fingers are stiff and cannot be bent. At the right the same hand is shown, closed. A normal hand in the middle serves to illustrate by contrast the nature of the abnormality, which appears in every generation of several large families. It is also called symphalangism, and is evidently related to the better-known abnormality of brachydactyly. Photograph from Frederick N. Duncan
Fig. 18.—Squares denote males and circles females, as is usual in the charts compiled by eugenists; black circles or squares denote affected individuals. A1 had all fingers affected in the way shown in Fig. 17; B2 had all but one finger affected; C2 had all but one finger affected; D2 had all fingers affected; D3 has all but forefingers affected. The family here shown is a branch, found by F. N. Duncan, of a very large family first described by Harvey Cushing, in which this abnormality has run for at least seven generations. It is an excellent example of an inherited defect due to a single Mendelian factor
Fig. 19.—The white lock of hair here shown is hereditary and has been traced back definitely through six generations; family tradition derives it from a son of Harry "Hot-Spur" Percy, born in 1403, and fallaciously assigns its origin to "prenatal influence" or "maternal impression." This young woman inherited the blaze from her father, who had it from his mother, who had it from her father, who migrated from England to America nearly a century ago. The trait appears to be a simple dominant, following Mendel's Law; that is, when a person with one of these locks who is a child of one normal and one affected parent marries a normal individual, half of the children show the lock and half do not. Photograph from Newton Miller
Fig. 20.—The piebald factor sometimes shows itself as nothing more than a blaze in the hair (see preceding figure); but it may take a much more extreme form, as illustrated by the above photograph from Q. I. Simpson and W. E. Castle. Mrs. S. A., a spotted mutant, founded a family which now comprises, in several generations, 17 spotted and 16 normal offspring. The white spotting factor behaves as a Mendelian dominant, and the expectation would be equal numbers of normal and affected children. Similar white factors are known in other animals. It is worth noting that all the well attested Mendelian characters in man are abnormalities, no normal character having yet been proved to be inherited in this manner
Fig. 21.—The palms of the hands and soles of the feet are covered with little ridges or corrugations, which are supposed to be useful in preventing the grasp from slipping; whence the name of friction-skin has been given to these surfaces. The ridges are developed into various patterns; the one above is a loop on the left forefinger. The ridges are studded with the openings of the sweat glands, the elevated position of which is supposed to prevent them from being clogged up; further, the moisture which they secrete perhaps adds to the friction of the skin. Friction-skin patterns are inherited in some degree. Photograph by John Howard Payne
Fig. 22.—Print of a finger-tip showing a loop-pattern, enlarged about eight times. This is a common type of pattern, and at first glance the reader may think it could be mistaken for one of his own. There are, however, at least sixty-five "ridge characteristics" on the above print, which an expert would recognize and would use for the purpose of identification. If it were found that the first two or three of them noted corresponded to similar characteristics on another print, the expert would have no doubt that the two prints were made by the same finger. In police bureaus, finger-prints are filed for reference with a classification based on the type of pattern, number of ridges between two given points, etc.; and a simple formula results which makes it easy to find all prints which bear a general resemblance to each other. The exact identity or lack of it is then determined by a comparison of such minutiæ as the sixty-five above enumerated. While the general outline of a pattern is inherited, these small characters do not seem to be, but are apparently rather due to the stretching of the skin as it grows. Illustration from J. H. Taylor
Fig. 23.—Diagram showing the mentality of 905 unselected children, 5 to 14 years of age, who may probably be taken as representative of the whole population. The median or tallest column, about one-third of the whole number, represents those who were normal or, as a statistician would say, mediocre. Their mental ages and chronological ages were practically identical. To the left of these the diminishing columns show the number whose mental ages fell short of their chronological ages. They are the mentally retarded, ranging all the way down to the lowest one-third of one per cent who represent a very low grade of feeble-mindedness. On the other side the mentally superior show a similar distribution. A curve drawn over the tops of the columns makes a good normal curve. "Since the frequency of the various grades of intelligence decreases gradually and at no point abruptly on each side of the median, it is evident that there is no definite dividing line between normality and feeble-mindedness, or between normality and genius. Psychologically, the mentally defective child does not belong to a distinct type, nor does the genius. … The common opinion that extreme deviations below the median are vastly more frequent than extreme deviations above the median seems to have no foundation in fact. Among unselected school children, at least, for every child of any given degree of deficiency there is roughly another child as far above the average as the former is below." Lewis M. Terman, The Measurement of Intelligence, pp. 66–67
Fig. 25.—Above are the finger-prints, supplied by J. H. Taylor of the Navy Department, of the two young sailors shown in Fig. 24. The reader might examine them once or twice without seeing any differences. Systematic comparison reveals that the thumbs of the left hands and the middle fingers of the right hands particularly are distinguishable. Finger-prints as a means of identification were popularized by Sir Francis Galton, the founder of eugenics, and their superiority to all other methods is now generally admitted. In addition to this practical usefulness, they also furnish material for study of the geneticist and zoölogist. The extent to which heredity is responsible for the patterns is indicated by the resemblance in pattern in spite of the great variability in this tract
CHAPTER VI
NATURAL SELECTION
CHAPTER VII
ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE EUGENICS MOVEMENT
CHAPTER VIII
DESIRABILITY OF RESTRICTIVE EUGENICS
Fig. 26.—To this shanty an elderly man of the "Hickory" family, a great clan of defectives in rural Ohio, brought his girl-bride, together with his two grown sons by a former marriage. The shanty was conveniently located at a distance of 100 feet from the city dump where the family, all of which is feeble-minded, secured its food. Such a family is incapable of protecting either itself or its neighbors, and should be cared for by the state. Photograph from Mina A. Sessions
Fig. 27.—This is "Young Hank," otherwise known as "Sore-Eyed Hank." He is the eldest son and heir of that Hank Hickory who, with his wife and seven children, applied for admission to their County Infirmary when it was first opened. For generation after generation, his family has been the chief patron of all the charities of its county. "Young Hank" married his cousin and duplicated his father's record by begetting seven children, three of whom (all feeble-minded) are now living. The number of his grandchildren and great-grandchildren is increasing every year, but the total can not be learned from him, for he is mentally incapable of counting even the number of his own children. He is about 70 years of age, and has never done any work except to make baskets. He has lived a wandering life, largely dependent on charity. For the last 25 years he has been partly blind, due to trachoma. He gets a blind pension of $5 a month, which is adequate to keep him supplied with chewing tobacco, his regular mastication being 10 cents a day. Such specimens can be found in many rural communities; if they were segregated in youth both they and the community would be much better off. Photograph from Mina A. Sessions
Fig. 28.—The Jukes have mostly been country-dwellers, a fact which has tended to increase the amount of consanguineous marriage among them. Removal into a new environment usually does not mean any substantial change for them, because they succeed immediately in re-creating the same squalid sort of an environment from which they came. In the house below, one part was occupied by the family and the other part by pigs. Photographs from A. H. Estabrook
"MONGOLIAN" DEFICIENCY. Fig. 29.—A common type of feeble-mindedness is accompanied by a face called Mongoloid, because of a certain resemblance to that of some of the Mongolian races as will be noted above. The mother at the left and the father were normal. This type seems not to be inherited, but due to some other influence—Goddard suggests uterine exhaustion from too many frequent pregnancies
CHAPTER IX
THE DYSGENIC CLASSES
CHAPTER X
METHODS OF RESTRICTION
Fig. 30.—Most of the cost of segregating the mentally defective can be met by properly organizing their labor, so as to make them as nearly self-supporting as possible. It has been found that they perform excellently such work as clearing forest land, or reforesting cleared land, and great gangs of them might profitably be put at such work, in most states. Photograph from the Training School, Vineland, N. J
Fig. 31.—They have the bodies of adults but the minds of children. It is not to the interest of the state that they should be allowed to mingle with the normal population; and it is quite as little to their own interest, for they are not capable of competing successfully with people who are normal mentally
CHAPTER XI
THE IMPROVEMENT OF SEXUAL SELECTION
Fig. 32.—Graph showing the marriage rate of graduates of a normal school, correlated with their facial attractiveness as graded by estimates. The column of figures at the left-hand side shows the percentage of girls who married. Of the prettiest girls (those graded 80 or over), 70% married. As the less attractive girls are added to the chart, the marriage rate declines. Of the girls who graded around 50 on looks, only about one-half married. In general, the prettier the girl, the greater the probability that she will not remain single
Fig. 33.—Graph showing the marriage-rate (on the same scale as in Fig. 32) of the graduates of a normal school, as correlated with their class standing. The girls who received the highest marks in their studies married in the largest numbers. It is evident that, on the whole, girls who make a poor showing in their studies in such schools as this are more likely to be life-long celibates than are the bright students
Fig. 34.—Curve showing period that elapsed between the graduation of women at Washington Seminary (at the average age of 19 years) and their marriage. It includes all the graduates of the classes of 1841 to 1900, status of 1913
Fig. 35.—Given a population divided in two equal parts, one of which produces a new generation every 25 years and the other every 33⅓ years, the diagram shows that the former group will outnumber the latter two to one, at the end of a century. The result illustrated is actually taking place, in various groups of the population of the United States. Largely for economic reasons, many superior people are postponing the time of marriage. The diagram shows graphically how they are losing ground, in comparison with other sections of the population which marry only a few years earlier, on the average. It is assumed in the diagram that the two groups contain equal numbers of the two sexes; that all persons in each group marry; and that each couple produces four children
CHAPTER XII
INCREASING THE MARRIAGE RATE OF THE SUPERIOR
Fig. 36.—Graph showing at a glance the record of the student body in regard to marriage and birth rates, during the years indicated. Statistics for the latest years have not been compiled, because it is obvious that girls who graduated during the last fifteen years still have a chance to marry and become mothers
CHAPTER XIII
INCREASE OF THE BIRTH-RATE OF THE SUPERIOR
WELLESLEY COLLEGE
Fig. 37.—During the period under consideration it declined steadily, although marriage was about as frequent and as early at the end as at the beginning of the period. It is necessary to suppose that the decline in the birth rate is due principally to voluntary limitation of families. J. C. Phillips, who made the above graph, thinks that since 1890 the birth rate among these college graduates may be tending slightly to rise again
Fig. 38.—The heavy line shows the distribution of families of prominent Methodists (mostly clergymen) who married only once. Eleven percent had no surviving children and nearly half of the families consisted of two children or less. The dotted line shows the families of those who were twice married. It would naturally be expected that two women would bear considerably more children than one woman, but as an average fact it appears that a second wife means the addition of only half a child to the minister's family. It is impossible to avoid the conclusion that the birth-rate in these families is determined more by the desire of the parents (based on economic grounds) than on the natural fecundity of the women. In other words, the number of children is limited to the number whom the minister can afford to bring up on his inadequate salary
CHAPTER XIV
THE COLOR LINE
CHAPTER XV
IMMIGRATION
Fig. 39.—Surgeons of the United States Public Health Service test every immigrant, physically and mentally, in order to send back any who give promise of being undesirable additions to the population. The above photograph shows how the examination of those whose condition has aroused suspicion, is conducted. The boy under the measuring bar, in the foreground, and the three immediately to the left of the desk, are examples of congenital asthenia and poor physique; two of the four were found to be dull mentally. Photograph from U. S. Public Health Service
CHAPTER XVI
WAR
CHAPTER XVII
GENEALOGY AND EUGENICS
Fig. 40.—In some pedigrees, particularly those dealing with antiquity, the only part known is the line of ascent which carries the family name—what animal breeders call the tail-male. In such cases it is evident that from the point of view of a geneticist practically nothing is known. How insignificant any single line of ascent is, by comparison with the whole ancestry, even for a few generations, is graphically shown by the above chart. It is assumed in this chart that no cousin marriages took place
Fig. 41.—A living individual who was a lineal descendant of George Washington might well take pride in the fact, but genetically that fact might be of very little significance. The above chart shows graphically how small a part any single ancestor plays, a few generations back. A general high average of ability in an ancestry is much more important, eugenically, than the appearance of one or two distinguished individuals
Fig. 42.—The top of the diagram shows the children "starting from scratch." By following down the vertical lines, one can see that their longevity depends largely on the size of family from which they come. Those who had 10 or a dozen brothers and sisters are most likely to live to extreme age. Alexander Graham Bell's data, 2964 members of the Hyde family in America
Fig. 43—If child mortality is eliminated, and only those individuals studied who live to the age of 20 or longer, the small families are still found to be handicapped. In general it may be said that the larger the family, the longer a member of it will live. Large families (in a normal, healthy section of the population) indicate vitality on the part of the parents. This does not, of course, hold good in the slums, where mental and financial inefficiency are abundant. Within certain classes, however, it may be said with confidence that the weaklings in the population are most likely to be from small families. Alexander Graham Bell's data
Fig. 44.—As measured by the percentage of infant deaths, those children show the greatest vitality who were born to mothers between the ages of 20 and 25. Infant mortality increases steadily as the mother grows older. In this case the youngest mothers (those under 20 years of age) do not make quite as good a showing as those who are a little older, but in other studies the youngest mothers have made excellent records. In general, such studies all show that the babies are penalized if marriage is delayed beyond the age of 25, or if child-bearing is unduly delayed after marriage. Alexander Graham Bell's data
CHAPTER XVIII
THE EUGENIC ASPECT OF SOME SPECIFIC REFORMS
TAXATION
THE "BACK TO THE FARM" MOVEMENT
DEMOCRACY
SOCIALISM
CHILD LABOR
COMPULSORY EDUCATION
VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND TRAINING
THE MINIMUM WAGE
MOTHERS' PENSIONS
HOUSING
FEMINISM
OLD AGE PENSIONS
THE SEX HYGIENE MOVEMENT
TRADES UNIONISM
PROHIBITION
PEDAGOGICAL CELIBACY
CHAPTER XIX
RELIGION AND EUGENICS
CHAPTER XX
EUGENICS AND EUTHENICS
Child Mortality in Families of Long-lived Stock, Genealogical Record Office Data
Length of Life of Mothers and Child-mortality of Their Daughters. English Quaker Families, Data of Beeton and Pearson, Arranged by Plœtz
Length of Life of Fathers and Child-mortality of Their Daughters
Length of Life of Fathers and Child-mortality of Their Children in Royal and Princely Families, Plœtz' Data
APPENDIX A
OVARIAN TRANSPLANTATION
APPENDIX B
"DYNAMIC EVOLUTION"
APPENDIX C
THE "MELTING POT"
Fig. 45.—Anthropologists have an ideal "mean man," whose every feature measures the arithmetic mean or average of that feature in all the individuals of his race. The above diagram drawn to scale from Dr. Hrdlička's measurements represents the mean man of Colonial ancestry. The outline of the face is almost oblong; the head is high and well-developed, particularly in the regions which are popularly supposed to denote superior intelligence. In general, it is a highly specialized type, denoting an advanced evolution
APPENDIX D
THE ESSENCE OF MENDELISM
Fig. 46.—Many different lines of study have made it seem probable that much, although not all, of the heredity of an animal or plant is carried in the nucleus of the germ-cell and that in this nucleus it is further located in little rods or threads which can be easily stained so as to become visible, and which have the name of chromosomes. In the above illustration four different views of the nucleus of the germ-cell of an earthworm are shown, with the chromosomes in different stages; in section 19 each chromosome is doubled up like a hairpin. Study of the fruit-fly Drosophila has made it seem probable not only that the hypothetical factors of heredity are located in the chromosomes, but that each factor has a perfectly definite location in its chromosome; and T. H. Morgan and his associates have worked out an ingenious method of measuring the distance from either end, at which the factor lies. Photomicrograph after Foot and Strobell
APPENDIX E
USEFUL WORKS OF REFERENCE
APPENDIX F
GLOSSARY
INDEX
FOOTNOTES
Collateral Inheritance
The following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects. Comparative Free Government
Problems of Child Welfare
SOCIAL SCIENCE TEXT-BOOKS. Edited by Richard T. Ely. History of Economic Thought
By LEWIS H. HANEY
Outlines of Sociology
Social Problems, A Study of Everyday Social Conditions
Outlines of Economics
