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Peter M. Curtis. Maintaining Mission Critical Systems in a 24/7 Environment
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Maintaining Mission Critical Systems in a 24/7 Environment
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chapter Contributors
Technical Reviewers and Editors
1 An Overview of Reliability and Resiliency in Today’s Mission Critical Environment
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Risk Assessment
1.2.1 Levels of Risk
1.3 Capital Costs versus Operation Costs
1.4 Critical Environment Workflow and Change Management
1.4.1 Change Management
Escalation Procedures
1.5 Testing and Commissioning
1.6 Documentation and Human Factor
1.7 Education and Training
1.8 Corporate Knowledge Transfer – the Means to Securing Tomorrow’s Critical Infrastructure
1.9 Operation and Maintenance
1.10 Employee Certification
1.11 Standards and Benchmarking
1.12 What is a Mission Critical Engineer
1.13 Conclusion
1.14 An Overview of Reliability and Resiliency in Today’s Mission Critical Environment ‐Questions to Consider
Needs Analysis/Risk Assessment
2 Energy and Cyber Security and its Effect on Business Resiliency
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Risks Related to Information Security
2.3 Electro Magnetic Pulse and Solar Flares
Architectural Tips for Protection
2.4 How Risks Are Addressed
2.5 Use of Distributed Energy Resources and Generation
2.6 Documentation and Its Relation to Information Security
2.7 Smart Grid
2.8 Conclusion
2.9 Energy Security and Its Effect on Business Resiliency ‐ Questions to Consider
Power Utilities
3 Mission Critical Engineering with an Overview of Green Technologies
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Companies’ Expectations: Risk Tolerance and Reliability
3.3 Identifying the Appropriate Redundancy in a Mission Critical Facility
3.4 Improving Reliability, Maintainability, and Proactive Preventative Maintenance
3.5 The Mission Critical Facilities Manager and the Importance of the Boardroom
3.6 Quantifying Reliability and Availability
3.6.1 Review of Reliability Terminology
3.7 Design Considerations for the Mission Critical Data Center
3.7.1 Data Center Certification
3.8 The Evolution of Mission Critical Facility Design
3.9 Human Factors and the Commissioning Process
3.10 Short Circuit & Coordination Studies. Short Circuit Study
Coordination Study
3.11 Introduction to Direct Current in the Data Center
3.11.1 Advantages of DC Distribution
3.11.2 Lighting Updates
3.11.3 DC Storage Options
3.11.4 Renewable Energy Integration
3.11.5 DC and Combined Cooling, Heat & Power
3.11.6 Safety Issues
3.11.7 Maintenance
3.11.8 Education & Training
3.11.9 Future Vision
3.12 Containerized Systems Overview
3.13 Mission Critical Engineering with an Overview of Green Technologies ‐ Questions to Consider
INSTALLATION
Procurement
Construction
Commissioning and Acceptance
Transition to Operations
Security Considerations
TRAINING AND DOCUMENTATION. Documentation
Staff & Training
Notes
4 Mission Critical Electrical System Maintenance & Safety
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The History of the Maintenance Supervisor and the Evolution of the Mission Critical Facilities Engineer
4.3 Internal Building Deficiencies and Analysis
4.4 Evaluating Your System
4.5 Choosing a Maintenance Approach
4.5.1 Annual Preventive Maintenance
4.6 Safe Electrical Maintenance. 4.6.1 Standards and Regulations
4.6.2 Electrical Safety: NFPA 70E Arc Flash Mitigation
4.6.3 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Classification of Hazard Risk Category
Arc Flash Boundary
Mitigation of AF Exposure
Electrical PPE Inspection
Working Near Generators
Working with Fuel Oil
Working with Batteries
Suggested Codes and Standards
4.6.4 Lockout/Tagout
4.7 Maintenance of Typical Electrical Distribution Equipment
4.7.1 Thermal Scanning and Thermal Monitoring
4.7.2 15 KV Class Equipment
4.7.3 480 Volt Switchgear
4.7.4 Motor Control Centers and Panel Boards
4.7.5 Automatic Transfer Switches
4.7.6 Automatic Static Transfer Switches (ASTS)
4.7.7 Power Distribution Units
4.7.8 277/480 Volt Transformers
4.7.9 Uninterruptible Power Systems
4.8 Being Proactive in Evaluating the Test Reports
4.9 Designing for Safety and Reliability
4.10 Conclusion
Notes
5 Standby Generators: Operations and Maintenance
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Necessity for Standby Power
5.3 Emergency, Legally Required, and Optional Systems
5.4 Standby Systems That Are Legally Required
5.5 Optional Standby Systems
5.6 Understanding Your Power Requirements
5.7 Management Commitment and Training
5.7.1 Lockout/ Tagout (LOTO)
5.7.2 Training
5.8 Standby Generator Systems Maintenance Procedures
5.8.1 Maintenance Record Keeping and Data Trending
5.8.2 Engine
5.8.3 Coolant System
5.8.4 Electrical / Control System
5.8.5 Generator
5.8.6 Automatic and Manual Switchgear
5.8.7 Load Bank Testing
5.9 Documentation Plan. 5.9.1 Proper Documentation and Forms
5.9.2 Record keeping
5.10 Emergency Procedures
5.11 Cold Start
5.12 Non‐Linear Load Concerns
5.12.1 Line Notches and Harmonic Current
5.12.2 Voltage / Frequency Drop
5.12.3 Voltage / Frequency Rise
5.12.4 Frequency Fluctuation
5.12.5 Synchronizing to Parallel
5.12.6 Automatic Transfer Switch
5.13 Conclusion
6 Fuel Systems Design and Maintenance
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Brief Discussion on Diesel Engines
6.3 Bulk Storage Tank Selection
6.3.1 Aboveground Tanks
6.3.2 Modern Underground Tanks and Piping Systems
6.3.3 Fuel Receiving Tanks
6.3.4 Generator Sub‐Base Tanks
6.4 Codes and Standards
6.5 Recommended Practices for all Tanks
6.6 Fuel Distribution System Configuration
6.7 Day Tank Control System
6.8 Diesel Fuel and a Fuel Quality Assurance Program
6.9 Conclusion
Notes
7 Power Transfer Switch Technology, Applications, and Maintenance
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Transfer Switch Technology and Applications
7.3 Types of Power Transfer Switches. 7.3.1 Manual Transfer Switches
7.3.2 Automatic Transfer Switches
Open Transition Automatic Transfer Switches
Open Transition Automatic Transfer Switches with Bypass Isolation
Closed Transition Transfer Switches (CTTS)
Closed Transition Automatic Transfer Switches with Bypass Isolation
Delayed Transition Switches
Softload Power Transfer Switching Devices
Breaker Pair ATSs
7.4 Control Devices
7.4.1 Time Delays
Start Time Delay
Transfer Time Delay
Return to Utility Time Delay
Engine Warm‐up Time Delay
Engine Cool‐down Time Delay
7.4.2 In‐Phase Monitor
7.4.3 Test Switches
7.4.4 Exercise Clock
7.4.5 Current, Voltage and Frequency Sensing
7.5 Design Features
7.5.1 Close Against High In‐Rush Currents
7.5.2 Withstand and Closing Rating (WCR)
7.5.3 Carry Full Rated Current Continuously
7.5.4 Interrupt Current
7.6 Additional Characteristics and Ratings of ATS. 7.6.1 NEMA Classification
7.6.2 System Voltage Ratings
7.6.3 ATS Sizing
7.6.4 Seismic Requirement
7.7 Installation & Commissioning, Maintenance, and Safety. 7.7.1 Installation & Commissioning
7.7.2 Maintenance & Safety
7.7.3 Maintenance Tasks
7.7.4 Drawings and Manuals
7.7.5 Testing & Training
7.8 General Recommendations
7.9 Conclusion
Notes
8 The Static Transfer Switch
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Overview. 8.2.1 Major Components
Circuit breakers
Logic
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers
8.3 Typical Static Switch One Line
8.3.1 Normal Operation
8.3.2 Bypass Operation
8.3.3 STS and STS/transformer Configurations
8.4 STS Technology and Application. 8.4.1 General Parameters
8.4.2 STS Location and Type
8.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Primary and Secondary STS/Transformer Systems
8.4.4 Monitoring, Data Logging, and Data Management
8.4.5 Downstream Device Monitoring
8.4.6 STS Remote Communication
8.4.7 Security
8.4.8 Human Engineering and Eliminating Human Errors
8.4.9 Reliability and Availability
EXAMPLE
8.4.10 Repairability and Maintainability
8.4.11 Fault Tolerance and Abnormal Operation
8.5 Testing
8.6 Conclusion
9 The Fundamentals of Power Quality
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Electricity Basics
9.2.1 Basic Circuit
9.2.2 Power Factor
9.3 Transmission of Power
9.3.1 Life Cycle of Electricity
9.3.2 Single‐Phase and Three‐Phase Power Basics
Single‐Phase Power
Three‐Phase Power
9.3.3 Unreliable Power versus Reliable Power
9.4 Understanding Power Problems
9.4.1 Power Quality Standards
9.4.2 Power Quality Transients
9.4.3 RMS Variations
Voltage Sags
Voltage Swells
Undervoltage
Overvoltage
Brownouts
Blackouts
Voltage Fluctuations
Voltage Unbalance
Voltage Notches
9.4.4 Causes of Power Line Disturbances
Lightning
Electrostatic Discharge
Harmonics
Utility Outages
EMI and RFI
9.4.5 Power Line Disturbance Levels
9.5 Tolerances of Critical Loads
9.5.1 CBEMA Curve
9.5.2 ITIC Curve
9.5.3 Purpose of Curves
9.6 Power Monitoring
9.7 The Impact of Alternative Energy Generation
9.8 Conclusion
10 UPS Systems: Applications and Maintenance with an Overview of Green Technologies
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Green and Reliability Overview
10.2 Purpose of UPS Systems
10.3 General Description of UPS Systems. 10.3.1 What is a UPS system?
10.3.2 How does a UPS system work?
10.3.3 Static UPS Systems
10.3.4 Online
10.3.5 Double Conversion
10.3.6 Double Conversion UPS Power Path
10.4 Components of a Static UPS System
10.4.1 Power Control Devices. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT)
Rectifier/Battery Charger
Input Filter
Inverter
Output Filter
Static Bypass
Efficiency
10.5 Online ‐ Line Interactive UPS Systems
10.6 Offline (Standby)
10.7 The Evolution of Static UPS Technology. 10.7.1 Emergence of the IGBT
10.7.2 Two and Three‐Level Rectifier/Inverter Topology
10.7.3 Silicon Carbide Replaces Silicon as UPS Semiconductor of Electricity
Size and Weight
Summary
10.8 Rotary UPS Systems
10.8.1 UPSs Using Diesel
Dual Output Concept
Description of Operation
10.8.2 Hybrid UPS Systems
10.9 Redundancy, Configurations, and Topology
10.9.1 N
10.9.2 N+1
10.9.3 Isolated Redundant
10.9.4 N+2
10.9.5 2N
10.9.6 2(N+1)
10.9.7 Distributed Redundant / Catcher UPS
10.9.8 “Eco‐Mode” for Static UPS
10.9.9 Availability Calculations
10.10 Energy Storage Devices. 10.10.1 Battery
Valve‐Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA)
Lithium‐ion Batteries (Li‐ion)
Other Considerations
Failure Modes
10.10.2 Flywheel Energy
10.11 UPS Maintenance & Testing
10.11.1 Physical Preventive Maintenance (PM)
10.11.2 Protection Settings, Calibration, and Guidelines
10.11.3 Functional Load Testing
10.11.4 Steady State Load Test
10.11.5 Steady State Load Test at 0%, 50% and 100% load:
10.11.6 Harmonic Analysis and Testing
Harmonic Testing:
10.11.7 Filter Integrity and Testing
Filter Testing:
10.11.8 Transient Response Load Test
Module Output Transient Response (Recording Oscillograph)
10.11.9 Module Fault Test
10.11.10 Battery Run Down Test
10.12 Static UPS and Maintenance
10.12.1 Examples of Semi‐Annual Checks and Services for UPS Systems. 10.13 UPS Management
10.14 Conclusion
11 Data Center Cooling Systems
11.1 Introduction
What are these differences?
Precision Cooling Environment
11.2 Background Information
11.3 Cooling within Datacom Rooms
11.4 Cooling Process. 11.4.1 Cooling Process in Datacom Space
11.4.2 Direct Expansion (DX) Systems
11.4.3 Chilled Water Systems
11.5 Cooling Final Dissipation
11.5.1 Air Cooled System
11.5.2 Water Side
11.6 The Refrigeration Process
11.6.1 Refrigeration Equipment – Compressors
11.6.2 Refrigeration Equipment – Chillers
a. Air‐Cooled Chillers
b. Water‐Cooled Chillers
c. Chiller Classification & Typical Sizes
11.6.3 Heat Rejection Equipment. a. Cooling Towers. Introduction
Classification
Make‐Up Water
The Economics of Cooling
Chilled Water and Ice Storage
b. Cooling Towers vs. Condensers and Drycoolers
Types of Dry‐Bulb‐Centric Heat Rejection Devices
Air‐Cooled Condensers
Self‐Contained Condensing Units
Drycoolers
Performance
Geothermal Heat Rejection Systems
11.6.4 Energy Recovery Equipment. a. Economizers. Introduction
Design Weather Conditions
Economizer Process
Airside Economizer
Waterside Economizer
Enthalpy Wheels
11.6.5 Heat Exchangers. Introduction
Heat Exchanger Types
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger
Other Types of Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchanger Operation for Datacom Facilities
One Last Note on Economizer Cooling
11.7 Components Inside Datacom Room. 11.7.1 Computer Room Cooling Units. Introduction
Configurations
Location
Airflow Paths
Datacom Cabinet Layout and Airflow Control
High‐Density Cooling
Hot and Cold Air Isolation Illustrations
Other Isolation Techniques
11.8 Conclusion
12 Data Center Cooling Efficiency, Concepts, & Technologies
12.1 Introduction
Data Center Efficiency Measurement
12.2 Heat Transfer Inside Data Centers
12.2.1 Heat Generation
12.2.2 Heat Return
12.2.3 Cooling Air
12.3 Cooling and Other Airflow Topics. 12.3.1 Leakage
12.3.2 Mixing and its Relationship to Efficiency
12.3.3 Re‐circulation
12.3.4 Venturi Effect
12.3.5 Vortex Effect
12.3.6 CRAC/CRAH Types
12.3.7 Potential CRAC Operation Issues
12.3.8 Sensible vs. Latent Cooling
12.3.9 Humidity Control
12.3.10 CRAC Fighting / Too Many CRACs
12.4 Design Approaches for Data Center Cooling. 12.4.1 Hot Aisle/Cold Aisle
12.4.2 Cold Aisle Containment
12.4.3 In‐Row Cooling with Hot Aisle Containment
12.4.4 Overhead Supplemental Cooling
12.4.5 Chimney or Ducted Returns
12.4.6 Advanced Active Airflow Management for Server Cabinets
12.5 Additional Considerations. 12.5.1 Active Air Movement
12.5.2 Adaptive Capacity
12.5.3 Liquid Cooling
12.5.4 Cold Storage
12.6 Hardware & Associated Efficiencies. 12.6.1 Server Efficiency
12.6.2 Server Virtualization
12.6.3 Multi‐Core Processors
12.6.4 Blade Servers
12.6.5 Energy Efficient Servers
12.6.6 Power Managed Servers
12.6.7 Effect of Dynamic Server Loads on Cooling
12.7 Best Practices
12.8 Efficiency Problem Solving
Scenario 3 – New data center build
12.9 Conclusion
12.10 Conversions, Formulas, Guidelines. Thermal
Airflow
Cooling System Design
Note
13 Raised Access Floors
13.1 Introduction. 13.1.1 What is an Access Floor?
13.1.2 What are the Typical Applications for Access Floors?
13.1.3 Why use an Access Floor?
13.2 Design Considerations
13.2.1 Determine the Structural Performance Required
Design Loads
Rolling Load
Uniform Loads
Ultimate Loads
Impact Loads
13.2.2 Determine the Required Finished Floor Height
Consider the Service Requirements
Minimum Floor to Ceiling Requirements
13.2.3 Determine the Understructure Support Design Type Required
13.2.4 Determine the Appropriate Floor Finish
Low‐Static‐Generation Floor Tile
Conductive and Static‐Dissipative Floor Tile for Sensitive Equipment Areas
13.2.5 Air Flow Requirements. Selecting the Appropriate Air Flow Method
Perforated Panels
Grate Panels
Air Leakage
13.3 Safety Concerns. 13.3.1 Removal & Reinstallation of Panels
Panel Lifters
13.3.2 Removing Panels
Lifting a Solid Panel with a Suction Cup Lifter
Reinstalling Panels
13.3.3 Stringer Systems
13.3.4 Protection of the Floor from Heavy Loads
Determining if a Rolling Load is Within the Floor’s Capacity
Floor Protection Methods for Heavy Rolling Loads
Load‐Spreading Plates
Floor Reinforcement
Load‐Spreading Plates and Panel Reinforcement
Heavy‐Grade Floor Panels
Load‐Moving Equipment Equipped with Air Bearings
Additional Equipment Movement Precautions
Precautions for Raised Floor Ramps
Using Lift Equipment on the Floor
Using Electronic Pallet Jacks on the Floor
Using Manual Pallet Jacks on the Floor
Protecting the Floor’s Finish from Heavy Move‐In Loads
Floor Protection Methods for Heavy Stationary Equipment
Determining if a Static Load is Within the Floor’s Capacity
Reinforcing the Floor with Additional Pedestals
13.3.5 Grounding the Access Floor
Using a Consolidation Point
13.3.6 Fire Protection
13.3.7 Zinc Whiskers
13.4 Panel Cutting (For all Steel Panels or Cement Filled Panels that do not Contain an Aggregate)
13.4.1 Safety Requirements for Cutting Panels
13.4.2 Guidelines for Cutting Panels
13.4.3 Cutout Locations in Panels; Supplemental Support for Cut Panels
13.4.4 Saws and Blades for Panel Cutting
13.4.5 Interior Cutout Procedure:
13.4.6 Round Cutout Procedure
13.4.7 Installing Protective Trim Around Cut Edges
13.4.8 Cutting and Installing the Trim
13.5 Access Floor Maintenance
13.5.1 Best Practices for Standard High Pressure Laminate Floor Tile (HPL) and for Vinyl Conductive & Static Dissipative Tile
13.5.2 Damp Mopping Procedure for HPL and Conductive & Static Dissipative Vinyl Tile
13.5.3 Cleaning the Floor Cavity
Removing Liquid from the Floor Cavity
13.6 Troubleshooting
13.6.1 Making Pedestal Height Adjustments
13.6.2 Rocking Panel Condition
13.6.3 Panel Lipping Condition (Panel Sitting High)
13.6.4 Out‐of‐Square Stringer Grid (Twisted Grid)
To Prevent Grid‐Twisting:
13.6.5 Tipping at Perimeter Panels
13.6.6 Tight Floor or Loose Floor: Floor Systems Laminated with HPL Tile
13.7 Additional Design Considerations. 13.7.1 LEED Certification
13.7.2 Energy Efficiency ‐ Hot and Cold Air Containment
13.7.3 Airflow Distribution and CFD Analysis
Summary of CFD Study
13.8 Conclusion
Chapter 14 Fire Protection in Mission Critical Infrastructures
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Hazard Analysis
14.3 Alarm and Notification
14.4 Early Warning Detection
14.4.1 Wireless Detection
14.5 Fire Suppression
14.5.1 Hybrid Fire Suppression Systems
14.5.2 Protecting Lithium Ion Batteries
14.6 Systems Design. 14.6.1 Stages of a Fire
14.6.2 Fire and Building Codes
14.7 Fire Detection
14.8 Fire Suppression Systems
14.8.1 Water Mist Systems
14.8.2 Carbon Dioxide Systems
14.8.3 Clean Agent Systems
14.8.4 Inert Gas Agents
14.8.5 IG‐541
14.8.6 IG‐55
14.8.7 Chemical Clean Agents
a. HFC‐227ea
a. HFC‐125
a. FK‐5‐1‐12
a. HFC‐23
a. Halon 1301
14.8.8 Portable Fire Extinguishers
14.8.9 Clean Agents and the Environment
14.9 Conclusion
Chapter 15 Managing Through Pandemics
15.1 Executive Summary: COVID‐19’s Impact on Critical Infrastructure Globally
15.2 Architectural Solutions and Air Purification Systems. 15.2.1 HVAC Systems
15.2.2 UV Technology
15.2.3 Bipolar Ionization
15.2.4 Copper Doorknobs
15.2.5 Architectural Improvements to be Considered
15.3 Building Equipment Solutions and Technology. 15.3.1 Cleaning vs. Disinfecting vs. Sanitizing
15.3.2 Intensify Cleaning Frequency and Measures
15.3.3 IR Scans
15.3.4 Rethinking the flush, the sink, and the hand dryer
15.3.5 Technology
15.4 Operations, Maintenance and Training. 15.4.1 Personal Protection
15.4.2 Change in Operation
15.4.3 Data Center Betterment Opportunities
15.5 Site Protection: Safeguarding the Staff and Visitors
15.6 The Workforce of Tomorrow
15.7 Assessment Tasks ‐ HVAC and Air Handling Units Filter Upgrades
Assessment Tasks:
15.8 Managing Through Pandemics ‐Questions to Consider
15.9 Conclusion
Note
Appendix A Policies and Regulations. A.1 Introduction
A.2 Industry Policies & Regulations
A.2.1 USA PATRIOT Act
A.2.2 Sarbanes‐Oxley Act (SOX)
A.2.3 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (also known as the Superfund Act)
A.2.4 Executive Order 13423: Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy and Transportation Management
A.2.4.1 Federal Real Property Council (FRPC)
A.2.5 ISO27000 Information Security Management System (ISMS)
A.2.6 The National Strategy for the Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructures and Key Assets
A.2.7 2009 National Infrastructure Protection Plan
A.2.8 North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) Critical Infrastructure Protection Program
A.2.9 U.S. Security & Exchange Commission (SEC)
A.2.10 Sound Practices to Strengthen the Resilience of the U.S. Financial System
A.2.11 C4I Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence
A.2.12 Basel II Accord
A.2.13 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
A.2.14 Business Continuity Management Agencies and Regulating Organizations
The DRII Ten‐Step Disaster Recovery / Business Continuity Process
A.2.15 FFIEC ‐ Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council
A.2.16 National Fire Prevention Association 1600 – Standards on Disaster/Emergency Management and Business Continuity Programs
A.2.17 Private Sector Preparedness Act
A.3 Data Protection
A.4 Encryption
A.4.1 Protecting Critical Data through Security and Vaulting
A.5 Business Continuity Plan (BCP)
A.6 Conclusion
Notes
Appendix B. Consolidated List of Key Questions
Appendix C Airflow Management (A System Approach) C.1 Introduction
C.2 Control is the Key
Benefits of Control
Greater Efficiency
Greater Reliability
Increased Power Density and Scalability Potential
Design Robustness and Flexibility
C.3 Obtaining Control
Lower Return Air Δt Versus Higher Δt:
C.4 Air Management Technologies
In‐Row Cooling
Overhead Cooling
Containment Strategies
Active‐Air Management
A Benchmark Study for Comparison
C.5 Conclusion
Notes
Glossary
References
Index. a
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Books in the IEEE Press Series on Power Engineering
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