Оглавление
Peter R. Shewry. Wheat
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Wheat. Environment, Food and Health
Foreword
Acknowledgements
1 Wheat and Humans: An Introduction to the Development and Utilisation of the Wheat Crop
1.1 Wheat Production in the Past and Present. 1.1.1 Co‐Evolution of Wheat Production and Human Societies
1.1.2 Wheat Supply and Demand
1.1.3 Wheat Adaptation
1.2 The Wheat Plant
1.2.1 Vegetative Phase. 1.2.1.1 Germination
1.2.1.2 Leaves
1.2.1.3 Tillers
1.2.1.4 Roots
1.2.2 Reproductive Phase
1.2.2.1 Stem Extension
1.2.2.2 Booting and Ear Emergence
1.2.2.3 Anthesis
1.2.2.4 Grain Growth
1.3 Wheat Evolution and Migration. 1.3.1 Origin in the Fertile Crescent
1.3.2 Wild Wheats
1.3.3 Domestication
1.3.4 The Spread of Wheat Cultivation
1.3.5 Increases in Harvest Index
1.4 Wheat as Food
1.4.1 The Development of Milling and Baking
1.4.2 The Cultural Significance of Bread
1.4.3 Bread Today
1.4.4 The Fall and Rise of Whole Grain Foods
1.4.5 Producing White and Wholemeal Flours by Roller Milling
1.5 Grain Quality. 1.5.1 Grain Size, Shape, and Specific Weight
1.5.2 Endosperm Texture
1.5.3 Water Absorption
1.5.4 Gluten
1.5.4.1 The Origin and Properties of Gluten
1.5.4.2 Gluten and Health
1.5.4.3 Dough Properties that Determine Processing Quality
1.5.4.4 Importance of Total Protein Concentration
1.5.4.5 Importance of Protein Quality
1.5.4.6 Measurement of Dough Rheology and Quality
1.5.5 Other Factors Affecting the Acceptability of Wheat for Different End‐Uses
1.5.5.1 Alpha‐Amylase Activity
1.5.5.2 Seed Coat Colour
1.6 Further Chapters
References
2 A ‘Good’ Soil
2.1 Soils for Wheat Production
2.1.1 Soil Taxonomy
2.1.2 Soil Texture
2.1.3 Soil Organic Matter
2.1.4 Soil pH and Sodicity
2.1.5 Salinity
2.1.6 Soil Structure
2.1.7 Soil Depth
2.1.8 Land Classification
2.2 The Rise of the Plough
2.3 Soil Change and Land Degradation
2.3.1 Loss of Soil
2.3.2 Organic Matter Loss and Amendment
2.3.3 Acidification and Liming
2.3.3.1 Calcium as a Nutrient
2.3.4 Depletion of Micronutrients
2.3.4.1 Boron
2.3.4.2 Chlorine
2.3.4.3 Copper
2.3.4.4 Iron
2.3.4.5 Manganese
2.3.4.6 Molybdenum
2.3.4.7 Nickel
2.3.4.8 Zinc
2.3.5 Salinisation
2.3.6 The Weed Seedbank
2.4 Systems for Protecting the Soil
2.4.1 Conservation Tillage
2.4.2 Organic Farming
2.4.3 Conservation Agriculture
2.5 Land‐Use Efficiency and Soils
References
3 Ample Water
3.1 The Water Requirement of Wheat
3.1.1 Germination and Seedling Emergence
3.1.2 Transpiration
3.1.3 Root Growth
3.1.4 Reproductive Growth and Grain Filling
3.2 Available Water
3.2.1 Soil Water
3.2.2 Rainfall
3.2.2.1 Rainfall Shortage
3.2.2.2 Rainfall Excess
3.2.3 Irrigation
3.2.3.1 Surface Irrigation
3.2.3.2 Overhead Irrigation
3.2.3.3 Sources of Irrigation Water
3.3 Water Use Efficiency
3.3.1 Reducing Evaporation Losses
3.3.2 Increasing Rooting at Depth
3.3.3 Deficit Irrigation
3.3.4 Osmotic Adjustment
3.3.5 Transpiration Efficiency
3.3.6 Potassium
3.4 Land‐Use Efficiency and Water
References
4 Mild Temperatures
4.1 The Temperature Requirement for Wheat
4.2 ‘Waiting for Fine Times’ (Snape et al. 2001) 4.2.1 Dormancy
4.2.2 Cold Acclimation
4.2.3 Vernalisation
4.2.4 Photoperiodism
4.2.5 Earliness per se
4.3 Vegetative Growth and Development. 4.3.1 Germination and Emergence
4.3.2 Leaves
4.3.3 Tillers
4.3.4 Roots
4.4 Reproductive Growth and Development
4.4.1 Spikelet Formation and Stem Extension
4.4.2 Meiosis and Anthesis
4.4.2.1 Heat Stress
4.4.2.2 Cold Stress
4.4.3 Grain Filling and Quality
4.5 Global Warming
References
5 Sunshine
5.1 The Light Requirement of Wheat. 5.1.1 Light Quantity
5.1.2 Light Quality
5.2 Light Interception
5.3 Improving Radiation Use for Increased Land‐Use Efficiency
References
6 Canopy Management
6.1 Crop Establishment. 6.1.1 Sowing Date
6.1.2 Plant Populations and Sowing Rate
6.2 Crop Nutrition
6.2.1 Nitrogen
6.2.1.1 The Requirement for Nitrogen
6.2.1.2 Nitrogen Fixation
6.2.1.3 Nitrogen Efficiencies and Losses
6.2.1.4 Recovering and Recycling Fixed Nitrogen
6.2.1.5 Optimising Nitrogen Application
6.2.2 Phosphorus
6.2.3 Sulphur
6.2.4 Magnesium
6.3 Diseases and their Control
6.3.1 The Rusts
6.3.1.1 Yellow Rust
6.3.1.2 Leaf Rust
6.3.1.3 Stem Rust
6.3.2 The Blotch Diseases
6.3.2.1 Septoria tritici Blotch
6.3.2.2 Septoria nodorumBlotch
6.3.2.3 Tan Spot
6.3.3 Diseases Contributing to Mycotoxins in the Grain
6.3.3.1 Ergot
6.3.3.2 Fusarium Head Blight (FHB)
6.3.4 Fungicides and Fungicide Use
6.4 Land‐use Efficiency and Canopy Management
References
7 The Structure and Composition of the Wheat Grain
7.1 Grain Development. 7.1.1 Fertilisation
7.1.2 Post‐fertilisation
7.1.3 Endosperm Development
7.1.4 Embryo Development
7.2 Structure of the Mature Grain
7.3 Major Components of the Mature Grain
7.3.1 Carbohydrates. 7.3.1.1 Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Oligosaccharides
7.3.1.2 Starch
7.3.1.3 Cell Wall Polysaccharides
7.3.1.4 Arabinogalactan Peptide (AGP)
7.3.2 Proteins
7.3.2.1 Grain Protein Content (GPC)
7.3.2.2 Grain Protein Deviation
7.3.2.3 Essential Amino Acid Composition
7.3.2.4 Wheat Grain Proteins
7.3.2.5 Gluten Proteins: Gliadins and Glutenins
7.3.2.5.1 Types and Properties of Gliadins and Glutenin Subunits
7.3.2.5.2 Sequences and Structures of Gluten Proteins
7.3.2.5.3 Polymorphism and Genetics of Gluten Proteins
7.3.2.5.4 Gluten Protein Synthesis and Deposition
7.3.2.6 Other Proteins of the Prolamin Superfamily
7.3.2.6.1 Farinins and Purinins
7.3.2.6.2 Puroindolines
7.3.2.6.3 Lipid Transfer Proteins
7.3.2.6.4 Amylase/Trypsin Inhibitors (ATIs)
7.3.2.7 Other Storage Proteins
7.3.2.8 Other Inhibitors and Putative Defensive Proteins
7.3.2.8.1 Purothionins
7.3.2.8.2 Wheat Germ Agglutinin (WGA)
7.3.2.8.3 Tritins (RIPs)
7.3.2.8.4 Wheatwin1 (PR4)
7.3.2.8.5 Other Protease Inhibitors
7.3.2.9 Xylanases and Xylanase Inhibitors
7.3.3 Lipids
7.3.4 Minor Components: Minerals, Vitamins, and Phytochemicals
7.4 Gradients in Composition within the Starchy Endosperm
References
8 Components and Mechanisms that Determine Grain Processing Properties
8.1 Grain Hardness and Vitreousness
8.1.1 Friabilin and Puroindolines
8.1.2 Other Proteins that Affect Grain Hardness
8.1.3 Role of Lipids
8.1.4 When and How Is Grain Softness Established?
8.1.5 Vitreousness
8.2 Dough Viscoelasticity. 8.2.1 Wheat Gluten and Dough Viscoelasticity
8.2.2 HMW Subunits, Dough Strength, and Breadmaking Quality
8.2.3 Effects of Other Gluten Proteins on Dough Quality
8.2.4 Molecular Basis for the Role of the HMW Subunits in Gluten Structure and Properties
8.3 Functional Properties of Starch
8.3.1 Starch Gelatinisation
8.3.2 Starch Damage
8.3.3 Starch Retrogradation and Staling
8.3.4 Waxy and High Amylose Starches
8.4 Other Functional Components. 8.4.1 Arabinoxylan
8.4.2 Functional Properties of Lipids in Dough
8.4.3 Water Absorption: Effects of Starch, Protein, and Fibre
8.5 Effects of Crop Nutrition and Environmental Factors on Grain Composition and Quality
8.5.1 Nitrogen Fertilisation
8.5.2 Sulphur Availability
8.5.2.1 Sulphur Nutrition, Asparagine Content, and Acrylamide Formation
8.5.3 Temperature and Water Availability
8.5.4 Carbon Dioxide Concentration
References
9 The Role of Wheat in Diet and Health
9.1 Contribution of Wheat to the Human Diet
9.2 Dietary Fibre. 9.2.1 Proposed and Approved Benefits of Dietary Fibre
9.2.2 Wheat Grain Fibre
9.2.2.1 Cell Wall Polysaccharides
9.2.2.2 Fructans
9.2.2.3 Resistant Starch
9.2.2.4 High Amylose Starch
9.2.3 Mechanism of Action of Dietary Fibre
9.2.3.1 Role of Food Structure and Breakdown
9.2.3.2 Role of Luminal Viscosity
9.2.3.3 Role of Prebiotic Activity
9.3 Micronutrients and Phytochemicals
9.3.1 Iron and Zinc
9.3.2 Selenium
9.3.3 B Vitamins
9.3.4 Phytochemicals
9.3.4.1 Phenolics
9.3.4.2 Terpenoids
9.3.5 Betaine and Choline
9.3.6 Health Benefits of Phytochemicals
9.3.7 Environmental Effects on the Concentrations of Phytochemicals and Minerals
9.4 Adverse Effects of Wheat on Health. 9.4.1 Wheat as Part of the Western Diet
9.4.2 Allergy and Intolerance to Wheat
9.4.3 Allergy
9.4.4 Coeliac Disease and Related Intolerances
9.4.5 Other Adverse Reactions to Wheat
9.4.6 FODMAPs and Gastro‐Intestinal Disorders
9.4.7 Bloating
9.5 Producing Healthier Wheat Products by Processing
9.5.1 Debranning
9.5.2 Flour Particle Size
9.5.3 Fermentation
9.5.4 Sprouting
9.5.5 Enzyme Treatments
9.5.6 Conclusions: Processing for Improved Health Benefits
9.6 Fungal Toxins in Wheat
9.6.1 Ergot
9.6.2 Fusarium Mycotoxins
9.6.3 Mycotoxins from Storage Fungi
9.6.4 Removing Fungal Toxins by Processing
References
10 Wheat Genetics and Improvement
10.1 Genetic Background to Wheat Breeding
10.2 Technologies for Wheat Genetics and Breeding. 10.2.1 Aneuploid Lines
10.2.2 Doubled Haploid Lines, Recombinant Inbred Lines, and Near‐Isogenic Lines
10.2.3 Marker‐Assisted Selection (MAS)
10.2.4 Genome‐Wide Association Genetics (GWAS) and Genomic Selection (GS)
10.2.5 Intermated Populations (MAGIC and NAM)
10.2.6 Hybrid Wheat
10.2.7 Perennial Wheat
10.3 Sources and Exploitation of Genetic Diversity
10.3.1 Gene Banks
10.3.2 Land Races
10.3.3 Wild Relatives
10.3.4 Rye Translocations
10.3.5 Synthetic Wheats
10.3.6 Ancient Wheats
10.3.7 Tritordeum: A Novel Cereal Derived from Wheat
10.3.8 Mutagenesis and TILLING
10.4 Impact of Breeding on Genetic Diversity in Wheat
10.4.1 Minerals
10.4.2 Protein Content
10.4.3 Wheat Proteins that Trigger Adverse Reactions
10.4.4 Dietary Fibre
10.4.5 Other Components
10.5 Are Ancient Wheats More Healthy than Modern Wheats?
10.5.1 Wheat Proteins that Trigger Adverse Reactions
10.5.2 Other Components
10.6 Wheat Biotechnology
10.6.1 Genetic Transformation
10.6.1.1 DNA Delivery
10.6.1.2 Selection of Transformed Plants
10.6.1.3 Targeting and Regulating Gene Expression
10.6.1.4 Gene Editing
10.6.2 Regulation, Impact and Consumer Acceptance of Genetic Transformation and Genome Editing in Wheat and Other Crops
10.7 Applications of Biotechnology to Wheat Improvement
10.7.1 Input Traits
10.7.1.1 Potential Yield
10.7.1.2 Improving Nitrogen‐Use Efficiency (NUE)
10.7.1.3 Resistance to Abiotic Stresses
10.7.1.4 Resistance to Pests and Pathogens
10.7.2 Output Traits: Grain Quality. 10.7.2.1 Dough Strength
10.7.2.2 Grain Texture
10.7.2.3 Increasing Mineral Micronutrients
10.7.2.4 Reducing Adverse Effects
10.7.2.5 ‘Improving’ Grain Polysaccharides
References
11 Epilogue: Wheat in Conflict and in Peace
Reference
Index
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