Оглавление
Philippa B. Cranwell. Foundations of Chemistry
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Foundations of Chemistry. An Introductory Course for Science Students
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contributors
About the companion website
0 Fundamentals
0.1 Introduction to chemistry
0.2 Measurement in chemistry and science – SI units
Worked Example 0.1
Solution
0.3 Expressing large and small numbers using scientific notation
Box 0.1
Worked Example 0.2
Solution
Worked Example 0.3
Solution
0.4 Using metric prefixes
0.4.1 Units of mass and volume used in chemistry. Mass
Volume
Worked Example 0.4
Solution
Worked Example 0.5
Solution
0.5 Significant figures
Worked Example 0.6
Solution
0.6 Calculations using scientific notation. 0.6.1 Adding and subtracting
Worked Example 0.7
Solution
0.6.2 Multiplying and dividing numbers
Worked Example 0.8
Solution
0.7 Writing chemical formulae and equations. 0.7.1 Writing chemical formulae
0.7.2 Writing and balancing chemical equations
Worked Example 0.9
Solution
0.7.3 Indicating the physical state of reactants and products in chemical equations
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
1 Atomic structure
1.1 Atomic structure
1.1.1 Subatomic particles
1.1.2 Mass number (A) and atomic number (Z)
Worked Example 1.1
Solution
Worked Example 1.2
Solution
1.1.3 Isotopes
Worked Example 1.3
Solution
1.1.4 Radioisotopes
1.2 Electronic structure
1.2.1 The periodic table
1.2.2 Electron energy levels
1.2.3 Simple electronic configurations
Worked Example 1.4
Solution
1.2.4 Sub‐shells and atomic orbitals
s orbitals
p orbitals
d orbitals
1.2.5 Describing electronic configurations
1.2.6 Electronic structures and the periodic table
Worked Example 1.5
Solution
Worked Example 1.6
Solution
Worked Example 1.7
Solution
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
2 Chemical bonding
2.1 Bonding
2.1.1 Atoms and molecules
2.1.2 Metallic bonding
Worked Example 2.1
Solution
2.1.3 Ionic bonding
Worked Example 2.2
Solution
Worked Example 2.3
Solution
2.1.4 Covalent bonding
Worked Example 2.4
Solution
Dative covalent bonding
Simple molecular covalent bonding and giant covalent bonding
2.2 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)
2.2.1 How to determine the number of areas of electron density around a central atom
Box 2.1 Depicting the three‐dimensional shape of a molecule
2.2.2 Two electron centres around the central atom: linear molecules
2.2.3 Three electron centres around the central atom: trigonal planar molecules
2.2.4 Four electron centres around the central atom: tetrahedral, pyramidal, and bent molecules
2.2.5 Five electron centres around the central atom: trigonal bipyramidal molecules
Box 2.2
2.2.6 Six electron centres around the central atom: octahedral molecules
Summary
Worked Example 2.5
Solution
Worked Example 2.6
Solution
Worked Example 2.7
Solution
Worked Example 2.8
Solution
Worked Example 2.9
Solution
Box 2.3
2.3 Polar bonds and polar molecules
2.3.1 Electronegativity
2.3.2 Polar bonds
2.3.3 Polar molecules
Worked Example 2.10
Solution
2.4 Intermolecular forces
2.4.1 Permanent dipole–permanent dipole interactions
2.4.2 London dispersion forces (instantaneous dipole–induced dipole)
2.4.3 Hydrogen bonding
2.4.4 Summary of strengths of intermolecular forces
Worked Example 2.11
Solution
2.4.5 A special case: ion‐dipole intermolecular forces
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
3 Amount of Substance
3.1 Masses of atoms and molecules
3.1.1 Relative atomic mass, Ar
3.1.2 Relative molecular mass, Mr
Worked Example 3.1
Solution
3.1.3 Relative formula mass
Worked Example 3.2
Solution
3.2 Amount of substance
3.2.1 The mole
Worked Example 3.3
Solution
3.2.2 Converting between moles and masses of substances – molar mass
Worked Example 3.4
Solution
Worked Example 3.5
Solution
3.3 Calculations with moles
3.3.1 Reacting masses
Worked Example 3.6
Solution
Worked Example 3.7
Solution
3.3.2 Percentage yield
Worked Example 3.8
Solution
Worked Example 3.9
Solution
3.3.3 Percentage composition by mass
Worked Example 3.10
Solution
Worked Example 3.11
Solution
Worked Example 3.12
Solution
3.3.4 Empirical formula
Worked Example 3.13
Solution
Worked Example 3.14
Solution
Worked Example 3.15
Solution
3.4 Solutions; concentrations and dilutions
3.4.1 Measuring and expressing concentrations
Worked Example 3.16
Solution
Worked Example 3.17
Solution
3.4.2 Solutions and dilutions
Worked Example 3.18
Solution
Worked Example 3.19
Solution
3.4.3 Alternative units of concentration
Worked Example 3.20
Solution
3.5 Titration calculations
Box 3.1 Titration calculations - relating reacting numbers of moles
Worked Example 3.21
Solution
Worked Example 3.22
Solution
Box 3.2
3.5.1 Back titration
Worked Example 3.23
Solution
3.6 Calculations with gas volumes
Worked Example 3.24
Solution
Worked Example 3.25
Solution
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
4 States of matter
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Solids
4.2.1 Metallic lattices
4.2.2 Ionic lattices
4.2.3 Simple molecular solids and giant molecular structures
Worked Example 4.1
Solution
Worked Example 4.2
Solution
4.3 Liquids
4.3.1 Evaporation and condensation, vapour pressure, and boiling
Worked Example 4.3
Solution
4.3.2 Effect of intermolecular forces on melting and boiling points
Worked Example 4.4
Solution
Worked Example 4.5
Solution
Worked Example 4.6
Solution
4.3.3 The effect of hydrogen bonding on melting and boiling points of covalent compounds
Structure of Ice
The Heat Capacity of Water
Hydrogen Bonding in Biological Molecules
Worked Example 4.7
Solution
Worked Example 4.8
Solution
Worked Example 4.9
Solution
4.4 Gases. 4.4.1 Ideal gases
4.4.2 The ideal gas equation
Boyle's Law
Charles's Law
The Ideal Gas Law
SI Units and the Ideal Gas Equation
Units of volume
Units of pressure
Temperature
Worked Example 4.10
Solution
Worked Example 4.11
Solution
4.4.3 The molar gas volume, Vm
Worked Example 4.12
Solution
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
5 Oxidation‐reduction (redox) reactions
5.1 Redox reactions. 5.1.1 Electron transfer in redox reactions
Worked Example 5.1
Solution
5.1.2 Oxidation number
Worked Example 5.2
Solution
5.1.3 Naming compounds based on the oxidation state of elements in the compound
Worked Example 5.3
Solution
Worked Example 5.4
Solution
5.1.4 Redox half‐equations
Worked Example 5.5
Solution
Worked Example 5.6
Solution
5.1.5 Oxidising agents and reducing agents
Worked Example 5.7
Solution
5.2 Disproportionation reactions
Worked Example 5.8
Solution
5.3 Redox titrations
Worked Example 5.9
Solution
Worked Example 5.10
Solution
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
6 Energy, enthalpy, and entropy
6.1 Enthalpy changes. 6.1.1 Energy and enthalpy
6.1.2 Exothermic and endothermic reactions
Box 6.1
6.1.3 Reaction pathway diagrams
8.2.3 Bond breaking and bond making
6.1.4 Measuring enthalpy changes
Standard enthalpy of reaction, ΔrHϴ
Standard enthalpy of formation, ΔfHϴ
6.1.5 Measuring enthalpy changes using calorimetry
Measuring the enthalpy of reaction in a calorimeter
Calculating the enthalpy change
Worked Example 6.1
Solution
Measuring the standard enthalpy of solution in a calorimeter. Box 6.2
Worked Example 6.2
Solution
Box 6.3
Measuring the enthalpy of combustion in a calorimeter
Worked Example 6.3
Solution
Worked Example 6.4
Solution
6.1.6 Hess's law
Worked Example 6.5
Solution
Worked Example 6.6
Solution
Worked Example 6.7
Solution
6.1.7 Bond energies and enthalpy changes
Using bond energies to calculate enthalpy changes
Worked Example 6.8
Solution
Worked Example 6.9
Solution
Worked Example 6.10
Solution
6.1.8 Born–Haber cycles. Lattice enthalpy
Calculating the lattice enthalpy of a compound
Standard enthalpy of atomisation, ΔatHϴ
Box 6.4
Ionisation energy, IE
Successive ionisation energies
Electron affinity, ΔEAHϴ
Born–Haber cycles
Worked Example 6.11
Solution
Constructing a Born–Haber diagram for calculating lattice enthalpy
Worked Example 6.12
Solution
Worked Example 6.13
Solution
6.1.9 Factors affecting the size of the lattice enthalpy
Charge on the ions
Size of the ions
Polarisation
Worked Example 6.14
Solution
6.2 Entropy and Gibbs free energy
6.2.1 Entropy
Entropy changes in reactions
Worked Example 6.14
Solution
6.2.2 Spontaneous processes and the second law of thermodynamics
Entropy change of the system
Worked Example 6.15
Solution
Worked Example 6.16
Solution
Entropy change of the surroundings
Worked Example 6.17
Solution
6.2.3 Gibbs free energy and spontaneous reactions
Worked Example 6.18
Solution
The importance of Gibbs free energy and work done in a reaction
Gibbs energy and temperature changes
Worked Example 6.19
Solution
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
7 Chemical equilibrium and acid‐base equilibrium
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Equilibrium and reversible reactions
7.2.1 Characteristics of an equilibrium
7.2.2 The equilibrium mixture and the equilibrium constant, Kc
Worked Example 7.1
Solution
Worked Example 7.2
Solution
Worked Example 7.3
Solution
Worked Example 7.4
Solution
Worked Example 7.5
Solution
Worked Example 7.6
Solution
7.2.3 The effects of changing the reaction conditions on the position of equilibrium
Le Châtelier's principle
Effect of changing concentration
Effect of changing the pressure of a gaseous reactant or product
Effect of changing the overall pressure of a reaction
Effect of changing the temperature of reaction
Effect of introducing a catalyst
Box 7.1
Worked Example 7.7
Solution
7.2.4 Heterogeneous and homogeneous equilibria
7.2.5 The equilibrium constant, Kp
Worked Example 7.8
Solution
Worked Example 7.9
Solution
Worked Example 7.10
Solution
7.3 Acid‐base equilibria. 7.3.1 The Brønsted–Lowry theory of acids and bases. Acids
Bases
Water as an acid and a base
Conjugate acids and bases
Worked Example 7.11
Solution
Worked Example 7.12
Solution
Worked Example 7.13
Solution
7.3.2 The pH scale
Box 7.2
Measuring pH
7.3.3 Strong and weak acids and bases. Strong acids
Worked Example 7.14
Solution
Weak acids
Worked Example 7.15
Solution
Weak bases
7.3.4 The ionisation of water
pOH
Worked Example 7.16
Solution
Worked Example 7.17
Solution
Variation of the pH of water with temperature
7.3.5 Acid‐base reactions
7.3.6 Carrying out a titration
7.3.7 Indicators
Box 7.3
Box 7.4
7.3.8 Acid‐base titrations. Titration of a strong acid and strong base
Titration of a weak acid and strong base
Titration of a strong acid and weak base
Titration of a weak acid and weak base
Worked Example 7.18
Solution
7.3.9 Buffers
Box 7.5
Acidic buffers
Behaviour on the addition of base
Behaviour on the addition of acid
Basic buffers
Behaviour on the addition of base
Behaviour on the addition of acid
7.3.10 Calculating the pH of a buffer solution
Worked Example 7.19
Solution
Worked Example 7.20
Solution
Calculating the pH change upon the addition of acid
Worked Example 7.21
Solution
7.3.11 Lewis acids and bases
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
8 Chemical kinetics – the rates of chemical reactions
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The rate of reaction. 8.2.1 Defining the rate of a chemical reaction
Worked Example 8.1
Solution
8.2.2 Collision theory
8.2.3 Factors that affect the rate of a reaction
Concentration or pressure of reactants
Temperature
Catalysts
Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts
Box 8.1
Box 8.2
8.3 Determining the rate of a chemical reaction. 8.3.1 Methods for monitoring the rate of a chemical reaction
8.3.2 The instantaneous rate of reaction
Box 8.3
8.3.3 An example of measuring rate of reaction at any time
8.4 The rate expression
Box 8.4
Worked Example 8.2
Solution
8.4.1 Determining the rate expression using instantaneous rates
8.4.2 Determining the rate expression using the initial rates method
Worked Example 8.3
Solution
Worked Example 8.4
Solution
8.4.3 Determining the rate expression by inspection
Zero‐order reactions
First‐order reactions
Second‐order reactions
8.4.4 Determining the rate expression using the integrated rate expression
Zero‐order reactions
First‐order reactions
Second‐order reactions
Box 8.5
Worked Example 8.5
Solution
8.5 The half‐life of a reaction
8.5.1 Half‐life of first‐order reactions
Box 8.6
8.5.2 Half‐life of zero‐order reactions
8.5.3 Half‐life of second‐order reactions
Box 8.7
Worked Example 8.6
Solution
Worked Example 8.7
Solution
Worked Example 8.8
Solution
Worked Example 8.9
Solution
8.6 Reaction mechanisms. 8.6.1 Reaction mechanisms and the rate‐determining step
8.6.2 Using the rate expression to determine the mechanism of a reaction
SN1 mechanism
SN2 mechanism
Worked Example 8.10
Solution
8.7 Effect of temperature on reaction rate. 8.7.1 The distribution of the energies of molecules with temperature
8.7.2 The Arrhenius equation
Worked Example 8.11
Solution
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
9 Electrochemistry
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Using redox reactions
Worked Example 9.1
Solution
Worked Example 9.2
Solution
9.2.1 Redox reactions and electrochemical cells
9.2.2 Electrochemical cells and half‐cells
Box 9.1
Worked Example 9.3
Solution
Worked Example 9.4
Solution
9.2.3 Standard electrode potentials, Eϴ
9.2.4 The standard hydrogen electrode
Values of standard reduction potentials
Box 9.2
Worked Example 9.5
Solution
9.2.5 Half‐cells involving non‐metals and non‐metal ions
9.2.6 The cell diagram
Worked Example 9.6
Solution
9.2.7 Using Eϴ values to obtain voltages of electrochemical cells
Worked Example 9.7
Solution
Worked Example 9.8
Solution
9.2.8 Using standard reduction potentials to predict the outcome of redox reactions
Worked Example 9.9
Solution
9.2.9 Relation between Eϴ and Gibbs energy
9.2.10 The effect of non‐standard conditions on cell potential – the Nernst equation
Worked Example 9.10
Solution
9.3 Using redox reactions – galvanic cells. 9.3.1 Galvanic (voltaic) cells
9.3.2 The variety of cells
9.3.3 Disposable batteries
9.3.4 Rechargeable cells
9.3.4.1 Lithium‐Ion batteries
9.3.5 Fuel cells
9.4 Using redox reactions – electrolytic cells
9.4.1 Electrolysis
9.4.2 Electrolysis of molten substances
9.4.3 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions
9.4.4 Calculating the amount of substance deposited during electrolysis
Worked Example 9.11
Solution
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
10 Group trends and periodicity
10.1 The periodic table: periods, groups, and periodicity
10.2 Trends in properties of elements in the same vertical group of the periodic table
10.2.1 Electron configuration
10.2.2 Effective nuclear charge, Zeff
10.2.3 Atomic radius
10.2.4 Ionisation energies
10.2.5 Electronegativity
10.2.6 Electron affinity (electron gain enthalpy)
Box 10.1
Box 10.2
Worked Example 10.1
Solution
Worked Example 10.2
Solution
10.3 Trends in properties of elements in the same horizontal period
10.3.1 Electron configuration
10.3.2 Atomic radius
Box 10.3
10.3.3 Ionisation energy
Group 2 to Group 3 (13)
Group 5 (15) to Group 6 (16)
Group 8 (18) to Group 1
10.3.4 Electronegativity
10.3.5 Electron affinity, ΔEAHϴ
Worked Example 10.3
Solution
Worked Example 10.4
Solution
10.3.6 Ionic radius
Ionic radius: cations
Ionic radius: anions
Ionic radius: general trends across the table
10.3.7 Melting point and boiling point
10.3.8 Trends in chemical properties across a period
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
11 The periodic table – chemistry of Groups 1, 2, 7 (17), and transition elements
11.1 Introduction
Box 11.1
11.2 Group 1 – the alkali metals
11.2.1 Physical properties of Group 1 elements
Atomic radii and ionisation energies
Melting points and boiling points
11.2.2 Chemical properties of Group 1 elements
Reaction with water
Reaction with oxygen
Worked Example 11.1
Solution
11.3 Group 2 – the alkaline earth metals
Box 11.2
11.3.1 Physical properties of Group 2 elements
Atomic radii and ionisation energy
Melting point and boiling point
Worked Example 11.2
Solution
Worked Example 11.3
Solution
11.3.2 Chemical properties of Group 2 elements
Reaction with water
Reaction with oxygen
11.3.3 Some s block compounds and their properties. Factors determining solubility
Enthalpy changes involved when a metal salt dissolves
Group 1 and 2 oxides
Group 1 and 2 hydroxides
Solubility of Group 1 and Group 2 carbonates and sulfates
Thermal stability of Group 1 and Group 2 carbonates
Thermal stability of metal nitrates
Worked Example 11.4
Solution
Worked Example 11.5
Solution
Worked Example 11.6
Solution
11.4 Group 7 (17) – the halogens
11.4.1 Physical properties of Group 7 (17) elements
Worked Example 11.7
Solution
11.4.2 Reactions of Group 7 (17) elements. Reactions as oxidising agents
Displacement reactions of halogens
Oxidation states of the halogens
Box 11.3
Disproportionation reactions
Box 11.4
Identification of halide ions
Worked Example 11.8
Solution
Worked Example 11.9
Solution
11.5 The transition elements
11.5.1 Physical properties of transition elements. Electron configurations
Oxidation states
Atomic radius
Ionisation energies
Metallic properties
Summary
Worked Example 11.10
Solution
11.5.2 Complexes of transition elements. Bonding in complexes of transition elements
Box 11.5
Shapes of transition metal complexes
Oxidation states and charge on the central metal ion
Naming transition metal complexes
The colour of transition metal complexes
11.5.3 Redox reactions
Box 11.6
Worked Example 11.11
Solution
11.5.4 Origin of colour in transition metal complexes
11.5.5 Isomerism in coordination complexes
Geometric isomers
Optical isomers
11.5.6 Ligand substitution in transition metal complexes
Worked Example 11.12
Solution
Worked Example 11.13
Solution
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
Note
12 Core concepts and ideas within organic chemistry
12.1 Types of molecular formulae
12.1.1 Empirical and molecular formulae
12.1.2 Skeletal formula
Worked Example 12.1
Solution
12.1.3 Homologous series
12.2 Nomenclature of simple alkanes
Box 12.1
Worked Example 12.2
Solution
Worked Example 12.3
Solution
Worked Example 12.4
Solution
12.2.1 Nomenclature for esters
Worked Example 12.5
Solution
12.3 Isomers
12.3.1 Chain isomerism
12.3.2 Positional isomerism
12.3.3 Functional group isomerism
12.3.4 Z and E isomerism (alkenes only)
Box 12.2
Worked Example 12.6
Solution
Worked Example 12.7
Solution
12.3.5 Chirality
Box 12.3
Worked Example 12.8
Solution
Worked Example 12.9
Solution
Worked Example 12.10
Solution
12.3.6 Summary of isomerism
12.4 Drawing reaction mechanisms
12.4.1 Types of arrows
12.4.2 Electrophiles, nucleophiles, and radicals
Electrophiles
Nucleophiles
Radicals
Worked Example 12.11
Solution
12.5 Types of reactions
12.5.1 Electrophilic addition (to an alkene)
12.5.2 Nucleophilic addition (to a carbonyl group)
12.5.3 Electrophilic aromatic substitution
12.5.4 Nucleophilic substitution
12.5.5 Elimination
12.5.6 Condensation
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
13 Alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes
13.1 Alkanes: an outline
13.1.1 Alkanes and crude oil
Worked Example 13.1
Solution
13.1.2 Combustion of alkanes
Worked Example 13.2
Solution
Worked Example 13.3
Solution
13.1.3 Cracking alkanes
Worked Example 13.4
Solution
Worked Example 13.5
Solution
13.1.4 Reactions of alkanes: radicals
13.1.4.1 Initiation
13.1.4.2 Propagation
13.1.4.3 Termination
Box 13.1
13.2 Alkenes: an outline
13.2.1 Bonding in alkenes
13.2.2 Sigma (σ) bonding
13.2.3 Pi (π) bonding
Worked Example 13.6
Solution
13.2.4 Testing for alkenes
13.2.5 Reaction of alkenes with electrophiles
Worked Example 13.7
Solution
13.2.6 General reactions of alkenes
13.3 Alkynes: an outline
13.3.1 General reactions of alkynes
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
14 Reactivity of selected homologous series
14.1 Alcohols
14.1.1 Primary alcohols
14.1.2 Secondary alcohols
14.1.3 Tertiary alcohols
14.1.4 Combustion of alcohols
14.1.5 Oxidation of alcohols
Box 14.1
14.1.5.1 Primary alcohols
14.1.5.2 Secondary alcohols
14.1.5.3 Tertiary alcohols
14.2 Aldehydes and ketones
14.2.1 Nucleophilic addition
Worked Example 14.1
Solution
Reduction
Worked Example 14.2
Solution
14.2.2 Tests for aldehydes and ketones
14.3 Carboxylic acids. 14.3.1 Preparation and properties of carboxylic acids
14.3.2 Deprotonation of carboxylic acids
Worked Example 14.3
Solution
14.3.3 Reduction of carboxylic acids
14.4 Esters. 14.4.1 Properties of esters
Worked Example 14.4
Solution
14.4.2 Hydrolysis of esters
Worked Example 14.5
Solution
Worked Example 14.6
Solution
14.5 Amides. 14.5.1 Preparation and properties of amides
Worked Example 14.7
Solution
14.5.2 Hydrolysis of amides
Worked Example 14.8
Solution
14.6 Amines. 14.6.1 Naming amines
Worked Example 14.9
Solution
14.6.2 Amines as bases
14.6.3 Preparation of alkyl amines
14.7 Nitriles
14.7.1 Nitrile formation
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
15 The chemistry of aromatic compounds
15.1 Benzene
15.1.1 The structure of benzene
Box 15.1
Worked Example 15.1
Solution
15.1.2 Nomenclature
Worked Example 15.2
Solution
15.1.3 The reactivity of benzene
15.1.4 Resonance in benzene
Worked Example 15.3
Solution
Worked Example 15.4
Solution
15.1.5 Substituent effects on reactivity
15.2 Reactions of benzene with electrophiles
15.2.1 Halogenation
15.2.2 Friedel–Crafts alkylation
15.2.3 Friedel–Crafts acylation
15.2.4 Nitration
15.2.5 Substituent effects on position of substitution
15.2.6 Reaction of phenol with electrophiles
Worked Example 15.5
Solution
15.2.7 Reaction of toluene with electrophiles
15.2.8 Reaction of nitrobenzene with electrophiles
Worked Example 15.6
Solution
15.3 Aniline
Worked Example 15.7
Solution
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
16 Substitution and elimination reactions
16.1 Substitution reactions
16.1.1 SN1 reactions
Box 16.1
Worked Example 16.1
Solution
16.1.2 SN2 reactions
Box 16.2
Worked Example 16.2
Solution
Worked Example 16.3
Solution
Worked Example 16.4
Solution
16.2 Elimination reactions
16.2.1 E1 reactions
16.2.2 E2 reactions
Worked Example 16.5
Solution
Worked Example 16.6
Solution
16.2.3 Zaitsev and Hofmann alkenes
16.3 Comparison of substitution and elimination reactions
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
17 Bringing it all together
17.1 Functional group interconversion
17.2 Bringing it all together
Worked Example 17.1
Solution
Worked Example 17.2
Solution
Worked Example 17.3
Solution
Worked Example 17.4
Solution
Worked Example 17.5
Solution
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
18 Polymerisation
18.1 Polymerisation
18.1.1 Addition polymerisation
Worked Example 18.1
Solution
Worked Example 18.2
Solution
Worked Example 18.3
Solution
18.1.2 LDPE and HDPE
18.1.3 Condensation polymerisation
Worked Example 18.4
Solution
Worked Example 18.5
Solution
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
19 Spectroscopy
19.1 Mass spectrometry
19.1.1 How a mass spectrometer works
19.1.2 Using the data from the mass spectrum
Worked Example 19.1
Solution
19.1.3 Mass spectrometry in organic chemistry
Worked Example 19.2
Solution
19.2 Infrared spectroscopy (IR)
Worked Example 19.3
Solution
19.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR)
19.3.1 The NMR spectrum
Worked Example 19.4
Solution
Worked Example 19.5
Solution
Worked Example 19.6
Solution
Worked Example 19.7
Solution
Box 19.1
Worked Example 19.8
Solution
Worked Example 19.9
Solution
Worked Example 19.10
Solution
19.3.2 Confirming the identity of O—H and N—H peaks
19.4 Bringing it all together
Worked Example 19.11
Solution
Worked Example 19.12
Solution
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
Appendix. Table of constants and other useful information. Physical constants
SI base units
Derived units
Multiples of units and prefixes
Short end‐of‐chapter answers. Chapter 0
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
Chapter 19
Index
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