Оглавление
Prof. Lars O. Nord. Carbon Dioxide Emission Management in Power Generation
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Carbon Dioxide Emission Management in Power Generation
Preface
Acknowledgements
Nomenclature. Latin Symbols
Greek Symbols
Abbreviations
Organisation and Use of Book
1 Introduction. 1.1 Greenhouse Effect
1.2 Atmospheric CO2
1.3 Natural Accumulations and Emissions of CO2
1.4 Man-made Emissions of CO2
1.5 Climate Change
1.6 Fossil Fuel Resources
1.7 Definition and Rationale of CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS)
1.8 Magnitude of CCS
Example 1.1CCS as part of the measures to get from the New Policies Scenario to the 450 Scenario
1.9 Public Acceptance of CCS
1.10 Show-stoppers for CCS Deployment?
1.11 History of CCS
Notes
2 Long-Term Storage of CO2. 2.1 Storage Time and Volume
Example 2.1 CO2 storage volumes for coal-fired and gas-fired power plants
2.2 Underground Storage
2.2.1 Aquifer
2.2.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) with CO2
Example 2.2Comparison between CO2 emissions from EOR with CO2 and oil sands
2.2.3 Enhanced Gas Recovery (EGR)
2.2.4 Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery (ECBM)
2.3 Ocean Storage
2.4 Mineral Carbonation
2.5 Industrial Use – Products
2.6 Requirements for CO2 Purity and Transportation
2.7 CO2 Compression and Conditioning
2.8 Transportation Hazards of CO2
2.9 Monitoring of CO2 Storage
Note
3 Fuels. 3.1 Coal
3.2 Liquid Fuels
3.2.1 Diesel
Example 3.1CO2 emissions from a diesel-fuelled passenger car
3.2.2 Methanol
3.2.3 Ethanol
3.2.4 Kerosene
3.2.5 Ammonia
3.3 Gaseous Fuels
3.4 Fuel Usage
Note
4 CO2 Generation, Usage, and Properties
4.1 Short on CO2
4.2 CO2 Chemistry and Energy Conversion
4.3 Combustion
4.4 Analogy Between CO2 Capture and Desulfurisation
4.5 Industrial Processes
4.5.1 Ammonia Production
4.5.2 Cement Production
4.5.3 Aluminium Production
4.6 How Do We Use CO2?
4.6.1 Chemicals and Petroleum
4.6.2 Metals
4.6.3 Manufacturing and Construction
4.6.4 Food and Beverages
4.6.5 Greenhouses
4.6.6 Health Care
4.6.7 Environmental
4.6.8 Electronics
4.6.9 Refrigerant
4.6.10 CO2 Laser
4.6.11 Miscellaneous
4.7 CO2 and Humans
4.8 Properties of CO2
4.8.1 Density and Compressibility
4.8.2 Specific Heat Capacity
4.8.3 Ratio of Specific Heats
4.8.4 Thermal Conductivity
4.8.5 Viscosity
4.8.6 Solubility in Water
Notes
5 Power Plant Technologies
5.1 Coal-Fired Power Plants
5.1.1 Steam Cycle in a Coal Power Plant
5.1.2 Pulverised Coal Combustion (PCC)
5.1.3 Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (CFBC)
5.1.4 Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion (PFBC)
5.1.5 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) 5.1.5.1 Process Design
5.1.5.2 IGCC Availability
5.1.5.3 IGCC Efficiency
5.2 Gas Turbine Power Plants. 5.2.1 Gas Turbines
5.2.2 Classification of Gas Turbines
5.2.3 Gas Turbines and Fuel Quality
5.2.4 Gas Turbine Performance Model
5.2.4.1 Compressor
5.2.4.2 Air Filter
5.2.4.3 Turbine
5.2.5 Part-load Performance of a Gas Turbine in a Combined Cycle
5.2.6 Diluted Hydrogen as Gas Turbine Fuel
5.3 Combined Cycles. 5.3.1 Combined Gas Turbine and Steam Turbine Cycles
5.3.2 Cycle Configurations
5.4 Heat Recovery Steam Generators. 5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Properties of Water/Steam
5.4.3 Dew Point of Flue Gas – Possible Corrosion
5.4.4 TQ Diagram for Steam Generation
5.5 Steam Cycle Cooling Systems
5.5.1 Direct Water Cooling of the Condenser (A)
5.5.2 Water Cooling with Wet Cooling Tower (B)
5.5.3 Air-Cooled Condenser (C)
5.5.4 Water-cooling with Dry Cooling Tower (D)
5.6 Internal Combustion Engines
5.7 Flue Gas Cleaning Technologies in Power Plants
5.7.1 Particle Removal from Flue Gas
5.7.2 Flue Gas Desulfurisation (FGD)
5.7.2.1 Wet Scrubbers
5.7.2.2 Spray Dry Scrubbers
5.7.2.3 Sorbent Injection Processes
5.7.2.4 Dry Scrubbers
5.7.2.5 Seawater Scrubbing
5.7.3 NOx Reduction
5.7.3.1 Dry Low NOx Burners
5.7.3.2 Fuel Staging
5.7.3.3 Reburning
5.7.3.4 Flue Gas Recirculation
5.7.3.5 Water and Steam Injection
5.7.3.6 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
5.7.3.7 Selective Non-catalytic Reduction (SNCR)
5.7.3.8 Mercury Control
Notes
6 Theory of Gas Separation. 6.1 Gas Separation in CO2 Capture
6.2 Theory of Compression and Expansion
6.2.1 Closed Systems
6.2.2 Open Flow Systems
6.2.3 Isothermal Compression
6.2.4 Compression and Expansion with Irreversibilities
6.3 Theory of Separation
6.4 Minimum Work Requirement for Separation – Examples
Example 6.1Separation of oxygen from dry air
Example 6.2 Separation of all gases from a coal-fired power plant flue gas
Example 6.3Separation of 100% of the CO2 from a coal-fired power plant flue gas
Example 6.4Separation of 85% of the CO2 from a coal-fired power plant flue gas
Notes
7 Power Plant Efficiency Calculations
7.1 General Definition of Efficiency
7.2 Definition of the Term ‘Efficiency’
7.3 Fuel Energy
7.4 Efficiency Calculations
7.5 Heat Rate Versus Efficiency
7.6 Additional Consumption of Fuel for CO2 Capture
7.7 Relating Work Requirement for CO2 Capture and Efficiency
7.8 Terms Related to CO2 Accounting
Notes
8 Classification of CO2 Capture Methods. 8.1 Following the CO2 Path
8.2 Principles for Combining Power Plants and CO2 Capture
8.2.1 Post-combustion CO2 Capture
8.2.2 Pre-combustion CO2 Capture
8.2.3 Oxy-combustion CO2 Capture
8.3 Dilution of CO2
9 CO2 Capture by Gas Absorption
9.1 Theory of Absorption
9.2 Absorption Process
9.3 Solvents for Absorption
9.3.1 Chemical – Organic
9.3.2 Chemical – Inorganic
9.3.3 Physical Solvents
9.3.4 Ionic Liquids
9.4 Solvent Contaminants
9.5 Solvent Loading
9.6 Energy Use in Absorption Processes
Notes
10 CO2 Capture by Other Gas Separation Methods
10.1 Membranes
10.1.1 General Information About Membranes
10.1.2 Inorganic Membranes for H2, O2, and CO2 Separation
10.1.2.1 Dense Pd-Based Membranes for Hydrogen Separation
10.1.2.2 Dense Electrolytes and Mixed Conducting Membranes
10.1.2.3 Microporous Membranes for Hydrogen or CO2 Separation
10.1.3 Polymeric Membranes for CO2 Separation
10.1.3.1 Dense Polymeric Membranes
10.1.3.2 Polymeric Membranes with Fixed-site-carrier (FSC)
10.1.3.3 Polymeric Membranes Supported Liquid Membrane (SLM)
10.1.4 Membrane Absorber
10.1.5 Flux Through Membranes
10.1.6 Challenges Facing Membrane Technology
10.2 Adsorption
10.2.1 General About Adsorption
10.2.2 Adsorbent Material
10.2.3 Adsorption–Desorption
10.3 Calcium Looping
10.4 Anti-sublimation
10.5 Distillation
10.6 CO2 Hydrate Formation
10.7 Electrochemical Separation Processes
Notes
11 Removing Carbon from the Fuel – Pre-combustion CO2 Capture. 11.1 Principle
11.2 Hydrogenator and Desulfuriser
11.3 Pre-reforming
11.4 Reformers
11.4.1 Steam Reforming (SR)
11.4.2 Partial Oxidation Reforming (POX)
11.4.3 Autothermal Reforming (ATR)
11.4.4 Combined Reforming
11.5 Gasification Theory and Principles
11.6 Gasifiers
11.6.1 Sasol–Lurgi Dry-ash Gasifier
11.6.2 BGL Gasifier
11.6.3 High-temperature Winkler (HTW)
11.6.4 General Electric Gasifier
11.6.5 Shell Gasifier
11.6.6 ConocoPhillips E-Gas Gasifier
11.6.7 Siemens SFG Gasifier
11.6.8 Selection of Gasifiers
11.7 Syngas Quenching
11.8 Syngas Coolers
11.9 COS Hydrolysis
11.10 Water—Gas Shift (WGS)
11.11 Integrated Pre-combustion Approaches
11.11.1 Membrane-Enhanced Water–gas Shift
11.11.2 Sorption-Enhanced Water-gas Shift
11.11.3 Membrane-Enhanced Reforming
Example 11.1 Design of a membrane-enhanced reforming reactor
11.11.4 Sorption-Enhanced Reforming
Note
12 Pre-combustion CO2 Capture in Power Cycles. 12.1 Classification
12.2 IGCC with CO2 Capture. 12.2.1 Process Design
12.2.2 IGCC with CO2 Capture – Efficiency
12.3 IRCC – Integrated Reforming Combined Cycle
Note
13 Post-combustion CO2 Capture in Power Cycles. 13.1 Classification
13.2 Power Plant with Absorption of CO2 from the Flue Gas
13.3 Post-combustion Efficiency Penalty – Absorption
13.4 Steam Turbine Steam Extraction
13.5 Flue Gas Pressure Drop
13.6 Post-combustion CO2 Capture at Atmospheric Pressure with Flue Gas Recirculation (FGR)
13.7 Post-combustion CO2 Capture at Elevated Pressure
13.7.1 High-Pressure CO2 Absorption Cycle
13.7.2 Sargas Cycle
13.7.3 Combicap Cycle
14 Oxy-combustion CO2 Capture in Power Cycles
14.1 Classification
14.2 Air Separation for Production of Oxygen. 14.2.1 Methods and Applications
14.2.2 Air Separation by Cryogenic Distillation
14.2.3 Mixed Conducting Membrane
14.2.4 Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC)
14.3 Oxy-combustion with Coal
14.3.1 Pulverised Coal Oxy-combustion
14.3.2 Circulating Fluidised Bed Oxy-combustion
14.4 Oxy-combustion with Natural Gas
14.4.1 Water Cycle
14.4.2 S-Graz Cycle
14.4.3 MATIANT Cycle
14.4.4 Allam Cycle
14.4.5 SCOC-CC
14.4.6 AZEP – Advanced Zero Emission Power Plant
14.4.7 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) with CO2 Capture
14.4.8 Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC) with Natural Gas
References
Glossary. Terms
Terms Used for Coal
Index
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