The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, Volume 4
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Robert Vane Russell. The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, Volume 4
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Part II. Articles on Castes and Tribes. Kumhār—Yemkala
Vol. IV
Kumhār
1. Traditions of origin
2. Caste sub-divisions
3. Social Customs
4. The Kumhār as a village menial
5. Occupation
6. Breeding pigs for sacrifices
7. The goddess Demeter
8. Estimation of the pig in India
9. The buffalo as a corn-god
10. The Dasahra festival
11. The goddess Devi
Kunbi
1. Distribution of the caste and origin of name
2. Settlement in the Central Provinces
3. Subcastes
4. The cultivating status
5. Exogamus septs
6. Restrictions on marriage of relatives
7. Betrothal and marriage
8. Polygamy and divorce
9. Widow-marriage
10. Customs at birth
11. Sixth and twelfth day ceremonies
12. Devices for procuring children
13. Love charms
14. Disposal of the dead
15. Mourning
16. Religion
17. The Pola festival
18. Muhammadan tendencies of Berār Kunbis
19. Villages and houses
20. Furniture
21. Food
22. Clothes and ornaments
23. The Kunbi as cultivator
24. Social and moral characteristics
Kunjra
Kuramwār
Kurmi
1. Numbers and derivation of name
2. Functional character of the caste
3. Subcastes
4. Exogamous groups
5. Marriage rules. Betrothal
6. The marriage-shed or pavilion
7. The marriage-cakes
8. Customs at the wedding
9. Walking round the sacred post
10. Other ceremonies
11. Polygamy widow-marriage and divorce
12. Impurity of women
13. Pregnancy rites
14. Earth-eating
15. Customs at birth
16. Treatment of mother and child
17. Ceremonies after birth
18. Suckling children
19. Beliefs about twins
20. Disposal of the dead
21. Funeral rites
22. Burning the dead
23. Burial
24. Return of the soul
25. Mourning
26. Shaving, and presents to Brahmans
27. End of mourning
28. Anniversaries of the dead
29. Beliefs in the hereafter
30. Religion. Village gods
31. Sowing the Jawaras or Gardens of Adonis
32. Rites connected with the crops. Customs of cultivation
33. Agricultural superstitions
34. Houses
35. Superstitions about houses
36. Furniture
37. Clothes
38. Women’s clothes
39. Bathing
40. Food
41. Caste-feasts
42. Hospitality
43. Social customs. Tattooing
44. Caste penalties
45. The cultivating status
46. Occupation
Appendix. List of Exogamous Clans
Lakhera
1. General notice
2. Social customs
3. The lac industry
4. Lac bangles
5. Red, a lucky colour
6. Vermilion and spangles
7. Red dye on the feet
8. Red threads
9. Lac toys
Lodhi
1. Origin and traditions
2. Position in the central Provinces
3. Sub-divisions
4. Exogamous groups
5. Marriage customs
6. The gauna ceremoney. Fertility rites
7. Widow-marriage and puberty rite
8. Mourning impurity
9. Social customs
10. Greetings and method of address
11. Sacred thread and social status
Lohar
1. Legends of the caste
2. Social position of the Lohar
3. Caste subdivisions
4. Marriage and other customs
5. Occupation
Lorha
Mahār
1. General Notice
2. Length of residence in the Central Provinces
3. Legend of origin
4. Sub-castes
5. Exogamous groups and marriage customs
6. Funeral rites
7. Childbirth
8. Names
9. Religion
10. Adoption of foreign religions
11. Superstitions
12. Social rules
13. Social subjection
14. Their position improving
15. Occupation
Mahli
1. Origin of the caste
2. Social customs
Majhwār
1. Origin of the tribe
2. The Mīrzāpur Majhwārs derived from the Gonds
3. Connection with the Kawars
4. Exogamy and totemism
5. Marriage customs
6. Birth and funeral rites
7. Religious dance
Māl
Mala
Māli
1. General notice of the caste, and its social position
2. Caste legend
3. Flowers offered to the gods
4. Custom of wearing garlands
5. Sub-castes
6. Marriage
7. Widow-marriage, divorce and polygamy
8. Disposal of the dead
9. Religion
10. Occupation
11. Traits and character
12. Other functions of the Māli
13. Physical appearance
Mallāh
Māna
Mānbhao
1. History and nature of the sect
2. Divisions of the order
3. Religious observances and customs
4. Hostility between Mānbhaos and Brāhmans
Māng
1. Origin and traditions
2. Subdivisions
3. Marriage
4. Widow marriage
5. Burial
6. Occupation
7. Religion and social status
Māng-Garori
Manihār
Mannewār
Marātha
1. Numerical statistics
2. Double meaning of the term Marātha
3. Origin and position of the caste
4. Exogamous clans
5. Other subdivisions
6. Social customs
7. Religion
8. Present position of the caste
9. Nature of the Marātha insurrection
10. Marātha women in past times
11. The Marātha horseman
12. Cavalry in the field
13. Military administration
14. Sitting Dharna
15. The infantry
16. Character of the Marātha armies
Mehtar
1. Introductory notice
2. Caste subdivisions
3. Social organisation
4. Caste punishments
5. Admission of outsiders
6. Marriage customs
7. Disposal of the dead
8. Devices for procuring children
9. Divination of sex
10. Childbirth
11. Treatment of the mother
12. Protecting the lives of children
13. Infantile diseases
14. Religion. Vālmīki
15. Lālbeg
16. Adoption of foreign religions
17. Social status
18. Occupation
19. Occupation (continued)
Meo
Mīna
1. The Mīnas locally termed Deswā
2. Historical notice of the Mīna tribe
3. Their robberies
4. The Deswālis of the Central Provinces
Mirāsi
Mochi276
1. General notice
2. Legends of origin
3. Art among the Hindus
4. Antagonism of Mochis and Chamārs
5. Exogamous groups
6. Social customs
7. Shoes
Mowār
Murha
1. Origin of the caste
2. Marriage customs
3. Funeral rites
4. Occupation
5. Women’s song
Nagasia
Nāhal
1. The tribe and its subdivisions
2. Marriage
3. Religion
4. Occupation
5. Social status
Nai
1. Structure of the caste
2. Marriage and other customs
3. Occupation
4. Other services
5. Duties at weddings
6. The barber-surgeon
7. A barber at the court of Oudh
8. Character and position of the barber
9. Beliefs about hair
10. Hair of kings and priests
11. The beard
12. Significance of removal of the hair and shaving the head
13. Shaving the head by mourners
14. Hair offerings
15. Keeping hair unshorn during a vow
16. Disposal of cut hair and nails
17. Superstitions about shaving the hair
18. Reasons why the hair was considered the source of strength
Naoda
Nat
1. The Nats not a proper caste
2. Muhammadan Nats
3. Social customs of the Nats. Their low status
4. Acrobatic performances
5. Sliding or walking on ropes as a charm for the crops
6. Snake-charmers
Nunia
Ojha
Oraon
1. General notice
2. Settlement in Chota Nāgpur
3. Subdivisions
4. Pre-nuptial licence
5. Betrothal
6. Marriage ceremony
7. Special Customs
8. Widow-remarriage and divorce
9. Customs at birth
10. Naming a child
11. Branding and tattooing
12. Dormitory discipline
13. Disposal of the dead
14. Worship of ancestors
15. Religion. The supreme deity
16. Minor godlings
17. Human sacrifice
18. Christianity
19. Festivals. The Karma or May-day
20. The sāl flower festival
21. The harvest festival
22. Fast for the crops
23. Physical appearance and costume of the Oraons
24. Dress of women
25. Dances
26. Social customs
27. Social rules
28. Character
29. Language
Pāik
Panka
1. Origin of the caste
2. Caste subdivisions
3. Endogamous divisions
4. Marriage
5. Religion
6. Other customs
7. Occupation
Panwār Rājpūt
1. Historical notice. The Agnikula clans and the slaughter of the Kshatriyas by Parasurāma
2. The legend of Parasurāma
3. The Panwār dynasty of Dhār and Ujjain
4. Diffusion of the Panwārs over India
5. The Nāgpur Panwārs
6. Subdivisions
7. Marriage customs
8. Widow-marriage
9. Religion
10. Worship of the spirits of those dying a violent death
11. Funeral rites
12. Caste discipline
13. Social customs
Pardhān
1. General notice
2. Tribal Subdivisions
3. Marriage
4. Religion
5. Social Customs
6. Methods of cheating among Pathāris
7. Musicians and priests
Pārdhi
1. General notice of the caste
2. Subdivisions
3. Marriage and funeral customs
4. Religion
5. Dress, food and social customs
6. Ordeals
7. Methods of catching birds
8. Hunting with leopards
9. Decoy stags
10. Hawks
11. Crocodile fishing
12. Other occupations and criminal practices
Parja
1. General notice of the tribe
2. Exogamous septs
3. Kinship and marriage
4. Marriage dance
5. Nuptial ceremony
6. Widow-marriage and divorce
7. Religion and festivals
8. Disposal of the dead
9. Occupation and social customs
Pāsi
1. The nature and origin of the caste
2. Brāhmanical legends
3. Its mixed composition
4. Marriage and other customs
5. Religion, superstitions and social customs
6. Occupation
7. Criminal tendencies
Patwa
Pindāri
1. Origin of the name
2. Rise of the Pindāris
3. Their strength and sphere of operations
4. Pindāri expeditions and methods
5. Return from an expedition
6. Suppression of the Pindāris. Death of Chitu
7. Character of the Pindāris
8. The existing Pindāris
9. Attractions of a Pindāri’s life
Prabhu
1. Historical notice
2. General Customs
Rāghuvansi
1. Historical notice
2. Social customs
Rājjhar
1. General notice
2. Origin and subdivisions
3. Marriage
4. Social Customs
Rājpūt
1. Introductory notice
2. The thirty-six royal races
3. The origin of the Rājpūts
4. Subdivisions of the clans
5. Marriage customs
6. Funeral rites
7. Religion
8. Food
9. Opium
10. Improved training of Rājpūt chiefs
11. Dress
12. Social customs
13. Seclusion of women
14. Traditional character of the Rājpūts
15. Occupation
Rājpūt, Baghel
Rājpūt, Bāgri
Rājpūt, Bais
Rājpūt, Baksaria
Rājpūt, Banāphar
Rājpūt, Bhadauria
Rājpūt, Bisen
Rājpūt, Bundela
Rājpūt, Chandel
Rājpūt, Chauhān
Rājpūt, Dhākar
Rājpūt, Gaharwār
Rājpūt, Gaur
Rājpūt, Haihaya
Rājpūt, Hūna
Rājpūt, Kachhwāha
Rājpūt, Nāgvansi
Rājpūt, Nikumbh
Rājpūt, Pāik
Rājpūt, Parihār
Rājpūt, Rāthor
Rājpūt, Sesodia
Rājpūt, Solankhi
Rājpūt, Somvansi
Rājpūt, Sūrajvansi
Rājpūt, Tomara
Rājpūt; Yādu
Rajwār
Rāmosi
1. General notice
2. Methods of robbery
3. Rāmosis employed as village watchmen
4. Social customs
Rangrez
Rautia
1. Origin of the tribe
2. Subdivisions
3. Marriage
4. Funeral rites
5. Inheritance
Sanaurhia
1. A band of criminals
2. Traditions of origin
3. Methods of stealing
Sānsia
1. Historical notice of the caste
2. Social customs
3. Taboos of relationship
4. Organisation for dacoity
5. Description of a dacoity
6. Omens
7. Ordeals
8. Sānsias at the present time
Sānsia, Uria
1. The caste and its subdivisions
2. Marriage customs
3. Religion and worship of ancestors
4. Occupation
Savar
1. Distribution and historical notices
2. Tribal legends
3. Tribal subdivisions
4. Marriage
5. Death ceremonies
6. Religion
7. Occupation
Sonjhara
1. Origin and constitution of the caste
2. Totemism
3. Marriage
4. Customs at birth
5. Funeral rites
6. Religion
7. Social customs
8. Occupation
Sudh
Sunār
1. General notice of the caste
2. Internal structure
3. Marriage and other customs
4. Religion
5. Social position
6. Manufacture of ornaments
7. The sanctity of gold
8. Ornaments. The marriage ornaments
9. Beads and other ornaments
10. Ear-piercing
11. Origin of ear-piercing
12. Ornaments worn as amulets
13. Audhia Sunārs
14. The Sunār as money-changer
15. Malpractices of lower-class Sumārs
Tamera
1. The Tamera and Kasār
2. Social traditions and customs
3. Disposal of the dead
4. Religion
Taonla
Teli
1. Strength and distribution of the caste
2. Origin and traditions
3. Endogamous subcastes
4. Exogamous divisions
5. Marriage customs
6. Widow-remarriage
7. Religion: Caste deities
8. Driving out evil
9. Customs at birth and death
10. Social status
11. Social customs and caste penalties
12. The Rāthor Telis
13. Gujarāti Telis of Nimār
14. The Teli an unlucky caste
15. Occupation. Oil-pressing
16. Trade and agriculture
17. Teli beneficence
Thug
1. Historical notice
2. Thuggees depicted in the caves of Ellora
3. Origin of the Thugs
4. Methods of assassination
5. Account of certain murders
6. Special incidents (continued)
7. Disguises of the Thugs
8. Secrecy of their operations
9. Support of landholders and villagers
10. Murder of sepoys
11. Callous nature of the Thugs
12. Belief in divine support
13. Theory of Thuggee as a religious sect
14. Worship of Kāli
15. The sacred pickaxe
16. The sacred gur (sugar)
17. Worship of ancestors
18. Fasting
19. Initiation of a novice
20. Prohibition of murder of women
21. Other classes of persons not killed
22. Belief in omens
23. Omens and taboos
24. Nature of the belief in omens
25. Suppression of Thuggee
Turi
1. Origin of the caste
2. Subdivisions
3. Marriage
4. Funeral rites
5. Occupation
6. Social status
Velama
1. Origin and social status
2. Marriage and social customs
Vidur
1. Origin and traditions
2. The Purads, Golaks and Borals
3. Illegitimacy among Hindustāni castes
4. Legend of origin
5. Marriage
6. Social rules and occupation
Wāghya
Yerūkala
Отрывок из книги
Kumhār, Kumbhār.—The caste of potters, the name being derived from the Sanskrit kumbh, a water-pot. The Kumhārs numbered nearly 120,000 persons in the Central Provinces in 1911 and were most numerous in the northern and eastern or Hindustāni-speaking Districts, where earthen vessels have a greater vogue than in the south. The caste is of course an ancient one, vessels of earthenware having probably been in use at a very early period, and the old Hindu scriptures consequently give various accounts of its origin from mixed marriages between the four classical castes. “Concerning the traditional parentage of the caste,” Sir H. Risley writes,1 “there seems to be a wide difference of opinion among the recognised authorities on the subject. Thus the Brahma Vaivārtta Purāna says that the Kumbhakār or maker of water-jars (kumbka), is born of a Vaishya woman by a Brāhman father; the Parāsara Samhita makes the father a Mālākār (gardener) and the mother a Chamār; while the Parāsara Padhati holds that the ancestor of the caste was begotten of a Tili woman by a Pattikār or weaver of silk cloth.” Sir Monier Williams again, in his Sanskrit Dictionary, describes them as the offspring of a Kshatriya woman by a Brāhman. No importance can of course be attached to such statements as the above from the point of view of actual fact, but they are interesting as showing the view taken of the formation of castes by the old Brāhman writers, and also the position given to the Kumhār at the time when they wrote. This varies from a moderately respectable to a very humble one according to the different accounts of his lineage. The caste themselves have a legend of the usual Brāhmanical type: “In the Kritayuga, when Maheshwar (Siva) intended to marry the daughter of Hemvanta, the Devas and Asuras2 assembled at Kailās (Heaven). Then a question arose as to who should furnish the vessels required for the ceremony, and one Kulālaka, a Brāhman, was ordered to make them. Then Kulālaka stood before the assembly with folded hands, and prayed that materials might be given to him for making the pots. So Vishnu gave his Sudarsana (discus) to be used as a wheel, and the mountain of Mandāra was fixed as a pivot beneath it to hold it up. The scraper was Adi Kūrma the tortoise, and a rain-cloud was used for the water-tub. So Kulālaka made the pots and gave them to Maheshwar for his marriage, and ever since his descendants have been known as Kumbhakār or maker of water-jars.”
Potter and his wheel
.....
Women grinding wheat and husking rice
Of furniture there is very little. Carefully arranged in their places are the brass cooking-pots, water-pots and plates, well polished with mud and water applied with plenty of elbow-grease by the careful housewife. Poor tenants frequently only have one or two brass plates and cups and an iron girdle, while all the rest of their vessels are of earthenware. Each house has several chūlhas or small horseshoe erections of earth for cooking. Each person in the house has a sleeping-cot if the family is comfortably off, and a spare one is also kept. These must be put out and exposed to the sun at least once a week to clear them of fleas and bugs. It is said that the Jains cannot adopt this method of disinfecting their beds owing to the sacrifice of insect life thereby involved; and that there are persons in Calcutta who make it their profession to go round and offer to lie on these cots for a time; they lie on them for some hours, and the little denizens being surfeited with their blood subsequently allow the owner of the cot to have a quiet night. A cot should always be shorter than a man’s length, so that his legs project over the end; if it is so long as to contain his whole length it is like a bier, and it is feared that lying on a cot of this kind will cause him shortly to lie on a bier. Poor tenants do not usually have cots, but sleep on the ground, spreading kodon-straw on it for warmth. They have no bedding except a gudri or mattress made of old rags and clothes sewn together. In winter they put it over them, and sleep on it in summer. They will have a wooden log to rest their heads on when sleeping, and this will also serve as a seat for a guest. Mālguzārs have a razai or quilt, and a doria or thick cloth like those used for covering carts. Clothes and other things are kept in jhāmpis or round bamboo baskets. For sitting on there are machnīs or four-legged stools about a foot high with seats of grass rope or pīrhis, little wooden stools only an inch or two from the ground. For lighting, wicks are set afloat in little earthen saucers filled with oil.
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