The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, Volume 4

The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, Volume 4
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Robert Vane Russell. The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, Volume 4

Pronunciation

Part II. Articles on Castes and Tribes. Kumhār—Yemkala

Vol. IV

Kumhār

1. Traditions of origin

2. Caste sub-divisions

3. Social Customs

4. The Kumhār as a village menial

5. Occupation

6. Breeding pigs for sacrifices

7. The goddess Demeter

8. Estimation of the pig in India

9. The buffalo as a corn-god

10. The Dasahra festival

11. The goddess Devi

Kunbi

1. Distribution of the caste and origin of name

2. Settlement in the Central Provinces

3. Subcastes

4. The cultivating status

5. Exogamus septs

6. Restrictions on marriage of relatives

7. Betrothal and marriage

8. Polygamy and divorce

9. Widow-marriage

10. Customs at birth

11. Sixth and twelfth day ceremonies

12. Devices for procuring children

13. Love charms

14. Disposal of the dead

15. Mourning

16. Religion

17. The Pola festival

18. Muhammadan tendencies of Berār Kunbis

19. Villages and houses

20. Furniture

21. Food

22. Clothes and ornaments

23. The Kunbi as cultivator

24. Social and moral characteristics

Kunjra

Kuramwār

Kurmi

1. Numbers and derivation of name

2. Functional character of the caste

3. Subcastes

4. Exogamous groups

5. Marriage rules. Betrothal

6. The marriage-shed or pavilion

7. The marriage-cakes

8. Customs at the wedding

9. Walking round the sacred post

10. Other ceremonies

11. Polygamy widow-marriage and divorce

12. Impurity of women

13. Pregnancy rites

14. Earth-eating

15. Customs at birth

16. Treatment of mother and child

17. Ceremonies after birth

18. Suckling children

19. Beliefs about twins

20. Disposal of the dead

21. Funeral rites

22. Burning the dead

23. Burial

24. Return of the soul

25. Mourning

26. Shaving, and presents to Brahmans

27. End of mourning

28. Anniversaries of the dead

29. Beliefs in the hereafter

30. Religion. Village gods

31. Sowing the Jawaras or Gardens of Adonis

32. Rites connected with the crops. Customs of cultivation

33. Agricultural superstitions

34. Houses

35. Superstitions about houses

36. Furniture

37. Clothes

38. Women’s clothes

39. Bathing

40. Food

41. Caste-feasts

42. Hospitality

43. Social customs. Tattooing

44. Caste penalties

45. The cultivating status

46. Occupation

Appendix. List of Exogamous Clans

Lakhera

1. General notice

2. Social customs

3. The lac industry

4. Lac bangles

5. Red, a lucky colour

6. Vermilion and spangles

7. Red dye on the feet

8. Red threads

9. Lac toys

Lodhi

1. Origin and traditions

2. Position in the central Provinces

3. Sub-divisions

4. Exogamous groups

5. Marriage customs

6. The gauna ceremoney. Fertility rites

7. Widow-marriage and puberty rite

8. Mourning impurity

9. Social customs

10. Greetings and method of address

11. Sacred thread and social status

Lohar

1. Legends of the caste

2. Social position of the Lohar

3. Caste subdivisions

4. Marriage and other customs

5. Occupation

Lorha

Mahār

1. General Notice

2. Length of residence in the Central Provinces

3. Legend of origin

4. Sub-castes

5. Exogamous groups and marriage customs

6. Funeral rites

7. Childbirth

8. Names

9. Religion

10. Adoption of foreign religions

11. Superstitions

12. Social rules

13. Social subjection

14. Their position improving

15. Occupation

Mahli

1. Origin of the caste

2. Social customs

Majhwār

1. Origin of the tribe

2. The Mīrzāpur Majhwārs derived from the Gonds

3. Connection with the Kawars

4. Exogamy and totemism

5. Marriage customs

6. Birth and funeral rites

7. Religious dance

Māl

Mala

Māli

1. General notice of the caste, and its social position

2. Caste legend

3. Flowers offered to the gods

4. Custom of wearing garlands

5. Sub-castes

6. Marriage

7. Widow-marriage, divorce and polygamy

8. Disposal of the dead

9. Religion

10. Occupation

11. Traits and character

12. Other functions of the Māli

13. Physical appearance

Mallāh

Māna

Mānbhao

1. History and nature of the sect

2. Divisions of the order

3. Religious observances and customs

4. Hostility between Mānbhaos and Brāhmans

Māng

1. Origin and traditions

2. Subdivisions

3. Marriage

4. Widow marriage

5. Burial

6. Occupation

7. Religion and social status

Māng-Garori

Manihār

Mannewār

Marātha

1. Numerical statistics

2. Double meaning of the term Marātha

3. Origin and position of the caste

4. Exogamous clans

5. Other subdivisions

6. Social customs

7. Religion

8. Present position of the caste

9. Nature of the Marātha insurrection

10. Marātha women in past times

11. The Marātha horseman

12. Cavalry in the field

13. Military administration

14. Sitting Dharna

15. The infantry

16. Character of the Marātha armies

Mehtar

1. Introductory notice

2. Caste subdivisions

3. Social organisation

4. Caste punishments

5. Admission of outsiders

6. Marriage customs

7. Disposal of the dead

8. Devices for procuring children

9. Divination of sex

10. Childbirth

11. Treatment of the mother

12. Protecting the lives of children

13. Infantile diseases

14. Religion. Vālmīki

15. Lālbeg

16. Adoption of foreign religions

17. Social status

18. Occupation

19. Occupation (continued)

Meo

Mīna

1. The Mīnas locally termed Deswā

2. Historical notice of the Mīna tribe

3. Their robberies

4. The Deswālis of the Central Provinces

Mirāsi

Mochi276

1. General notice

2. Legends of origin

3. Art among the Hindus

4. Antagonism of Mochis and Chamārs

5. Exogamous groups

6. Social customs

7. Shoes

Mowār

Murha

1. Origin of the caste

2. Marriage customs

3. Funeral rites

4. Occupation

5. Women’s song

Nagasia

Nāhal

1. The tribe and its subdivisions

2. Marriage

3. Religion

4. Occupation

5. Social status

Nai

1. Structure of the caste

2. Marriage and other customs

3. Occupation

4. Other services

5. Duties at weddings

6. The barber-surgeon

7. A barber at the court of Oudh

8. Character and position of the barber

9. Beliefs about hair

10. Hair of kings and priests

11. The beard

12. Significance of removal of the hair and shaving the head

13. Shaving the head by mourners

14. Hair offerings

15. Keeping hair unshorn during a vow

16. Disposal of cut hair and nails

17. Superstitions about shaving the hair

18. Reasons why the hair was considered the source of strength

Naoda

Nat

1. The Nats not a proper caste

2. Muhammadan Nats

3. Social customs of the Nats. Their low status

4. Acrobatic performances

5. Sliding or walking on ropes as a charm for the crops

6. Snake-charmers

Nunia

Ojha

Oraon

1. General notice

2. Settlement in Chota Nāgpur

3. Subdivisions

4. Pre-nuptial licence

5. Betrothal

6. Marriage ceremony

7. Special Customs

8. Widow-remarriage and divorce

9. Customs at birth

10. Naming a child

11. Branding and tattooing

12. Dormitory discipline

13. Disposal of the dead

14. Worship of ancestors

15. Religion. The supreme deity

16. Minor godlings

17. Human sacrifice

18. Christianity

19. Festivals. The Karma or May-day

20. The sāl flower festival

21. The harvest festival

22. Fast for the crops

23. Physical appearance and costume of the Oraons

24. Dress of women

25. Dances

26. Social customs

27. Social rules

28. Character

29. Language

Pāik

Panka

1. Origin of the caste

2. Caste subdivisions

3. Endogamous divisions

4. Marriage

5. Religion

6. Other customs

7. Occupation

Panwār Rājpūt

1. Historical notice. The Agnikula clans and the slaughter of the Kshatriyas by Parasurāma

2. The legend of Parasurāma

3. The Panwār dynasty of Dhār and Ujjain

4. Diffusion of the Panwārs over India

5. The Nāgpur Panwārs

6. Subdivisions

7. Marriage customs

8. Widow-marriage

9. Religion

10. Worship of the spirits of those dying a violent death

11. Funeral rites

12. Caste discipline

13. Social customs

Pardhān

1. General notice

2. Tribal Subdivisions

3. Marriage

4. Religion

5. Social Customs

6. Methods of cheating among Pathāris

7. Musicians and priests

Pārdhi

1. General notice of the caste

2. Subdivisions

3. Marriage and funeral customs

4. Religion

5. Dress, food and social customs

6. Ordeals

7. Methods of catching birds

8. Hunting with leopards

9. Decoy stags

10. Hawks

11. Crocodile fishing

12. Other occupations and criminal practices

Parja

1. General notice of the tribe

2. Exogamous septs

3. Kinship and marriage

4. Marriage dance

5. Nuptial ceremony

6. Widow-marriage and divorce

7. Religion and festivals

8. Disposal of the dead

9. Occupation and social customs

Pāsi

1. The nature and origin of the caste

2. Brāhmanical legends

3. Its mixed composition

4. Marriage and other customs

5. Religion, superstitions and social customs

6. Occupation

7. Criminal tendencies

Patwa

Pindāri

1. Origin of the name

2. Rise of the Pindāris

3. Their strength and sphere of operations

4. Pindāri expeditions and methods

5. Return from an expedition

6. Suppression of the Pindāris. Death of Chitu

7. Character of the Pindāris

8. The existing Pindāris

9. Attractions of a Pindāri’s life

Prabhu

1. Historical notice

2. General Customs

Rāghuvansi

1. Historical notice

2. Social customs

Rājjhar

1. General notice

2. Origin and subdivisions

3. Marriage

4. Social Customs

Rājpūt

1. Introductory notice

2. The thirty-six royal races

3. The origin of the Rājpūts

4. Subdivisions of the clans

5. Marriage customs

6. Funeral rites

7. Religion

8. Food

9. Opium

10. Improved training of Rājpūt chiefs

11. Dress

12. Social customs

13. Seclusion of women

14. Traditional character of the Rājpūts

15. Occupation

Rājpūt, Baghel

Rājpūt, Bāgri

Rājpūt, Bais

Rājpūt, Baksaria

Rājpūt, Banāphar

Rājpūt, Bhadauria

Rājpūt, Bisen

Rājpūt, Bundela

Rājpūt, Chandel

Rājpūt, Chauhān

Rājpūt, Dhākar

Rājpūt, Gaharwār

Rājpūt, Gaur

Rājpūt, Haihaya

Rājpūt, Hūna

Rājpūt, Kachhwāha

Rājpūt, Nāgvansi

Rājpūt, Nikumbh

Rājpūt, Pāik

Rājpūt, Parihār

Rājpūt, Rāthor

Rājpūt, Sesodia

Rājpūt, Solankhi

Rājpūt, Somvansi

Rājpūt, Sūrajvansi

Rājpūt, Tomara

Rājpūt; Yādu

Rajwār

Rāmosi

1. General notice

2. Methods of robbery

3. Rāmosis employed as village watchmen

4. Social customs

Rangrez

Rautia

1. Origin of the tribe

2. Subdivisions

3. Marriage

4. Funeral rites

5. Inheritance

Sanaurhia

1. A band of criminals

2. Traditions of origin

3. Methods of stealing

Sānsia

1. Historical notice of the caste

2. Social customs

3. Taboos of relationship

4. Organisation for dacoity

5. Description of a dacoity

6. Omens

7. Ordeals

8. Sānsias at the present time

Sānsia, Uria

1. The caste and its subdivisions

2. Marriage customs

3. Religion and worship of ancestors

4. Occupation

Savar

1. Distribution and historical notices

2. Tribal legends

3. Tribal subdivisions

4. Marriage

5. Death ceremonies

6. Religion

7. Occupation

Sonjhara

1. Origin and constitution of the caste

2. Totemism

3. Marriage

4. Customs at birth

5. Funeral rites

6. Religion

7. Social customs

8. Occupation

Sudh

Sunār

1. General notice of the caste

2. Internal structure

3. Marriage and other customs

4. Religion

5. Social position

6. Manufacture of ornaments

7. The sanctity of gold

8. Ornaments. The marriage ornaments

9. Beads and other ornaments

10. Ear-piercing

11. Origin of ear-piercing

12. Ornaments worn as amulets

13. Audhia Sunārs

14. The Sunār as money-changer

15. Malpractices of lower-class Sumārs

Tamera

1. The Tamera and Kasār

2. Social traditions and customs

3. Disposal of the dead

4. Religion

Taonla

Teli

1. Strength and distribution of the caste

2. Origin and traditions

3. Endogamous subcastes

4. Exogamous divisions

5. Marriage customs

6. Widow-remarriage

7. Religion: Caste deities

8. Driving out evil

9. Customs at birth and death

10. Social status

11. Social customs and caste penalties

12. The Rāthor Telis

13. Gujarāti Telis of Nimār

14. The Teli an unlucky caste

15. Occupation. Oil-pressing

16. Trade and agriculture

17. Teli beneficence

Thug

1. Historical notice

2. Thuggees depicted in the caves of Ellora

3. Origin of the Thugs

4. Methods of assassination

5. Account of certain murders

6. Special incidents (continued)

7. Disguises of the Thugs

8. Secrecy of their operations

9. Support of landholders and villagers

10. Murder of sepoys

11. Callous nature of the Thugs

12. Belief in divine support

13. Theory of Thuggee as a religious sect

14. Worship of Kāli

15. The sacred pickaxe

16. The sacred gur (sugar)

17. Worship of ancestors

18. Fasting

19. Initiation of a novice

20. Prohibition of murder of women

21. Other classes of persons not killed

22. Belief in omens

23. Omens and taboos

24. Nature of the belief in omens

25. Suppression of Thuggee

Turi

1. Origin of the caste

2. Subdivisions

3. Marriage

4. Funeral rites

5. Occupation

6. Social status

Velama

1. Origin and social status

2. Marriage and social customs

Vidur

1. Origin and traditions

2. The Purads, Golaks and Borals

3. Illegitimacy among Hindustāni castes

4. Legend of origin

5. Marriage

6. Social rules and occupation

Wāghya

Yerūkala

Отрывок из книги

Kumhār, Kumbhār.—The caste of potters, the name being derived from the Sanskrit kumbh, a water-pot. The Kumhārs numbered nearly 120,000 persons in the Central Provinces in 1911 and were most numerous in the northern and eastern or Hindustāni-speaking Districts, where earthen vessels have a greater vogue than in the south. The caste is of course an ancient one, vessels of earthenware having probably been in use at a very early period, and the old Hindu scriptures consequently give various accounts of its origin from mixed marriages between the four classical castes. “Concerning the traditional parentage of the caste,” Sir H. Risley writes,1 “there seems to be a wide difference of opinion among the recognised authorities on the subject. Thus the Brahma Vaivārtta Purāna says that the Kumbhakār or maker of water-jars (kumbka), is born of a Vaishya woman by a Brāhman father; the Parāsara Samhita makes the father a Mālākār (gardener) and the mother a Chamār; while the Parāsara Padhati holds that the ancestor of the caste was begotten of a Tili woman by a Pattikār or weaver of silk cloth.” Sir Monier Williams again, in his Sanskrit Dictionary, describes them as the offspring of a Kshatriya woman by a Brāhman. No importance can of course be attached to such statements as the above from the point of view of actual fact, but they are interesting as showing the view taken of the formation of castes by the old Brāhman writers, and also the position given to the Kumhār at the time when they wrote. This varies from a moderately respectable to a very humble one according to the different accounts of his lineage. The caste themselves have a legend of the usual Brāhmanical type: “In the Kritayuga, when Maheshwar (Siva) intended to marry the daughter of Hemvanta, the Devas and Asuras2 assembled at Kailās (Heaven). Then a question arose as to who should furnish the vessels required for the ceremony, and one Kulālaka, a Brāhman, was ordered to make them. Then Kulālaka stood before the assembly with folded hands, and prayed that materials might be given to him for making the pots. So Vishnu gave his Sudarsana (discus) to be used as a wheel, and the mountain of Mandāra was fixed as a pivot beneath it to hold it up. The scraper was Adi Kūrma the tortoise, and a rain-cloud was used for the water-tub. So Kulālaka made the pots and gave them to Maheshwar for his marriage, and ever since his descendants have been known as Kumbhakār or maker of water-jars.”

Potter and his wheel

.....

Women grinding wheat and husking rice

Of furniture there is very little. Carefully arranged in their places are the brass cooking-pots, water-pots and plates, well polished with mud and water applied with plenty of elbow-grease by the careful housewife. Poor tenants frequently only have one or two brass plates and cups and an iron girdle, while all the rest of their vessels are of earthenware. Each house has several chūlhas or small horseshoe erections of earth for cooking. Each person in the house has a sleeping-cot if the family is comfortably off, and a spare one is also kept. These must be put out and exposed to the sun at least once a week to clear them of fleas and bugs. It is said that the Jains cannot adopt this method of disinfecting their beds owing to the sacrifice of insect life thereby involved; and that there are persons in Calcutta who make it their profession to go round and offer to lie on these cots for a time; they lie on them for some hours, and the little denizens being surfeited with their blood subsequently allow the owner of the cot to have a quiet night. A cot should always be shorter than a man’s length, so that his legs project over the end; if it is so long as to contain his whole length it is like a bier, and it is feared that lying on a cot of this kind will cause him shortly to lie on a bier. Poor tenants do not usually have cots, but sleep on the ground, spreading kodon-straw on it for warmth. They have no bedding except a gudri or mattress made of old rags and clothes sewn together. In winter they put it over them, and sleep on it in summer. They will have a wooden log to rest their heads on when sleeping, and this will also serve as a seat for a guest. Mālguzārs have a razai or quilt, and a doria or thick cloth like those used for covering carts. Clothes and other things are kept in jhāmpis or round bamboo baskets. For sitting on there are machnīs or four-legged stools about a foot high with seats of grass rope or pīrhis, little wooden stools only an inch or two from the ground. For lighting, wicks are set afloat in little earthen saucers filled with oil.

.....

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