Оглавление
Sean Gallagher. Musculoskeletal Disorders
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Musculoskeletal Disorders. The Fatigue Failure Mechanism
Preface
Bibliography
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
1 Introduction
Bibliography
2 Common Musculoskeletal Disorders. Overview
Burden of MSDs
Common Musculoskeletal Disorders. Low Back Pain. Description/characteristic features
Prevalence/incidence
Anatomy/pathology
Physical risk factors/activities associated with LBP
UE Tendon and Muscle Disorders
Hand‐wrist tendinopathy. Description/characteristic features
Epidemiology (prevalence/incidence)
Anatomy/pathology
Risk factors/activities associated with hand‐wrist tendinopathy
Lateral tendinopathy of the elbow. Characteristics/description
Epidemiology
Anatomy/pathology
Risk factors/activities associated with lateral epicondylitis
Medial elbow tendinopathy. Characteristics/description
Epidemiology
Anatomy/pathology
Risk factors/activities associated with medial epicondylitis
Shoulder tendinopathy (rotator cuff) Characteristics/description
Epidemiology
Anatomy/pathology
Risk factors/activities associated with shoulder tendinopathy
Upper Extremity Muscle Disorders: Fatigue, Myalgia, and Fibrosis. Characteristics/description
Epidemiology
Anatomy/pathology
Risk factors/activities associated with muscle disorders
Nerve Disorders. Carpal tunnel syndrome (median nerve entrapment or irritation) Characteristics/description
Epidemiology
Anatomy/pathology
Risk factors/activities associated with CTS
Cubital tunnel syndrome (ulnar nerve entrapment) Characteristics/description
Epidemiology
Anatomy/pathology
Risk factors/activities associated with cubital tunnel syndrome
Hand‐arm Vibration Syndrome. Characteristics/description
Epidemiology
Anatomy/pathology
Risk factors/activities associated with HAVS
Commonalities Among MSDs
Bibliography
3 Structure and Function of the Musculoskeletal System. A Systems View of the Musculoskeletal System
Connective Tissues: General Overview
General Connective Tissue Structure. Cells
Extracellular matrix
General Subtypes: Structure and Function
Loose connective tissue
Areolar tissue
Adipose tissue
Reticular tissue
Dense collagenous connective tissues
Fascia
Skeletal (Striated) Muscle
Skeletal Muscle Structure. Cells
Metabolic subtypes
Extracellular matrix
Organization
Contractile proteins and the sarcomere
Sarcoplasmic reticulum and calcium storage and release
Vascularization
Function of Skeletal Muscle Components
Myosin filament sliding
Neuromuscular junction and muscle contraction
Extracellular matrix/fascia
Muscle as an endocrine system
Tendon
Tendon Structure. Cells
Extracellular matrix
Organization
Function of Tendon Components. Transfer of forces
Mechanotransduction in tenocytes
Cartilage
Structure. Cells
Extracellular matrix
Organization
Hyaline Cartilage. Structure
Function
Fibrocartilage. Structure
Function
Elastic Cartilage. Structure
Function
Bone
Bone Structure. Cells
Osteoblasts—the producers of bone matrix
Bone lining cells—effector cells on standby
Osteocytes—the mechanotransducers and maintainers of bone
Osteoclasts—reallocate and remodel bone
Extracellular matrix
Organization
Bone Function
Ligament
Ligament Structure
Ligament Function
Joints
Structure of Synarthroses
Structure of Diathroses (Synovial Joints)
Function of Joints
Summary
Bibliography
4 Structure and Function of the Nervous System and Its Relation to Pain. Overview
A Systems View of the Nervous System
An Introduction to Cellular Components of the Nervous System. Neurons
Glial Cells
Structure and Function of the Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral Nerve Histology
Synapses, Including Neuromuscular Junctions
Basic Nerve Physiology
Interactions of Peripheral Nerves with the Musculoskeletal System
Innervation of Skin
Innervation of Deep Fascia
Innervation of Muscles
Muscle spindles (sensory muscle receptor)
Other muscle innervation, e.g., nociceptors and chemoreceptors
Innervation of Tendons
Innervation of Bone
Innervation of Ligaments and Other Joint Structures
Central Nervous System Components that Interact with the Musculoskeletal System
Spinal Sensory‐Motor Reflex Circuits
Ascending Pathways of Pain Transmission
Descending Modulatory Pathways of Pain Transmission
Pain
Types of Pain
Neuroplasticity and Pain
Peripheral sensitization
Central sensitization
Summary
Bibliography
5 Fundamental Biomechanics Concepts. Introduction
Newton's Laws. Newton's First Law
Newton's Second Law
Newton's Third Law
Scalars
Vectors
Moments
Biomechanical Modeling
Static Biomechanical Modeling
Dynamic Biomechanical Modeling
Summary
Bibliography
6 Material Properties of Musculoskeletal and Peripheral Nerve Tissues. Overview
Fundamentals of Materials Science. Hooke's Law
Stress Versus Strain
Stress–Strain Curve and Young's Modulus
Material Deformation of Musculoskeletal Tissues. Viscoelastic Properties
Responses of Viscoelastic Materials to Static Loading Conditions
Hysteresis
General Characteristics of Deformation in Musculoskeletal Tissues
Isotropy Versus Anisotropy
Material Properties of Musculoskeletal Components. Tendons/Ligaments
Strength
Strain
Elastic modulus
Anisotropy
Age
Effects of exercise
Effects of injury and repair
Cartilage
Articular cartilage
Strength
Strain
Elastic modulus
Anisotropy
Age
Effects of exercise
Effects of injury and repair
Fibrocartilage
Strength
Strain
Elastic modulus
Anisotropy
Aging
Effects of exercise
Effects of injury and repair
Bone
Strength
Strain
Elastic modulus
Anisotropy
Age
Effects of exercise
Effects of injury and repair
Skeletal Muscle
Strength
Strain
Elastic modulus
Anisotropy
Age
Effects of exercise
Effects of injury and repair
Material Properties of Peripheral Nerves
Strength. Whole nerves
Nerve components
Strain. Whole nerves
Nerve components
Elastic Modulus. Whole nerves
Nerve components
Anisotropy in peripheral nerves
Age
Effects of Exercise
Effects of Injury and Repair
Summary
Bibliography
7 Fatigue Failure of Musculoskeletal Tissues. Introduction
Ex Vivo Studies of Fatigue Failure in Musculoskeletal Tissues. Tendon
Ligaments
Spinal Motion Segments
Cartilage
Bone
Summary of Ex Vivo Fatigue Testing
In Vivo Studies of Fatigue Failure. Tendons
Cartilage
Bone
Skeletal Muscle
Summary of In Vivo Studies
Epidemiological Data
Force‐Repetition Interaction in Epidemiological Studies
Fatigue Failure‐Based Risk Assessment Tools
Summary
Bibliography
8 MSDs as a Fatigue Failure Process. Introduction
Prior Models and Approaches
Revised NIOSH Lifting Equation
The Psychophysical Method
Static Biomechanical Modeling
The Lumbar Motion Monitor Model
Upper Extremity Risk Assessment Tools
The Strain Index
The Threshold Limit Value for Hand Activity
Summary of Prior Models
Considering MSD Risk Factors from the Fatigue Failure Perspective. The Consistent Emergence of Select Risk Factors
Adoption of Non‐neutral Postures
Vibration Exposure
MSD Physical Risk Factor Summary: Fatigue Failure as a Unifying Framework
Benefits of the Fatigue Failure Model. A Potential Causal Mechanism
Validated Methods of Cumulative Exposure
Accounting for Remodeling/Healing Impacts in Musculoskeletal Injuries
Understanding the Influence of Personal Characteristics on MSD Risk
Combining Cumulative Damage from Dynamic and Static Loading
Counting Cycles in Variable Amplitude Loading
Assessment of MSD Risk Associated with Job Rotation
Evaluating the Risk Reduction Due to Exoskeleton Use
Other Potential Applications of Fatigue Failure
Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)
Noise‐Induced Hearing Loss
Summary
Bibliography
9 Fundamentals of Fatigue Failure Analysis. Introduction
Fatigue Terminology
Mechanisms of Fatigue Failure
The Stress‐Life (S–N) Curve
Plastic Strain Fatigue Life Estimation Methods
Morrow Energy Model
The Coffin–Manson Model
Cumulative Damage and Residual Strength Models
Effects of Mean Stress on Fatigue Life
Cycle Counting in Variable Amplitude Stress Exposures
Weibull Analysis of Fatigue Life
Creep Loading and Creep‐Fatigue
Summary
Bibliography
10 Fatigue Failure in a Biological Environment. Introduction
A Model of Fatigue Failure in Self‐Healing Materials
Responses of Inert Versus Biological Materials to Stress
Healing of Damaged Tissues
Self‐Healing in Engineered Materials
Factors Influencing Healing Kinetics
Psychological (Psychosocial) Stress
Effects of Personal Characteristics on Wound Healing. Age
Obesity
Sex
Relationship of Damage Versus Healing Kinetics
Summary
Bibliography
11 Injury and Self‐Repair of Musculoskeletal Tissues. Introduction
Injury‐Induced Inflammation. Acute Inflammation—Primary and Secondary Responses
Termination of the Acute Phase Response
Wound Healing—Physiological Versus Pathological
Physiological Wound Healing
Pathological Healing
Unique Injury and Healing Mechanisms and Capacity in Specific Musculoskeletal and Neural Tissues. Tendons. Tendon injury
Injury‐induced tendon inflammation—Acute versus chronic/persistent
Capacity and extent of tendon self‐repair
Ligaments. Ligament injury
Capacity and extent of ligament self‐repair
Skeletal Muscle. Muscle injury
Injury‐induced muscle inflammation
Capacity and extent of muscle self‐repair
Cartilage. Cartilage injury
Capacity and extent of articular cartilage self‐repair
Capacity and extent of fibrocartilage self‐repair
Progression of cartilage degeneration after trauma
Bone. Bone injury
Capacity and extent of bone self‐repair
Bone repair and maintenance require innervation
Nerve. Nerve injury
Injury‐induced nerve inflammation
Capacity and extent of peripheral nerve repair
Effects of Continued Tissue Loading on the Healing Process
Summary
Bibliography
12 Personal Characteristics and MSD Risk. Introduction
Biological Variability
Age. Effects of Aging on the Musculoskeletal System
Muscle
Tendon/Ligament
Bone
Cartilage
Aging Summary
Sex
Effects of Sex on the Musculoskeletal System Components. Muscle
Tendon/ligament
Bone
Cartilage
Summary of Sex Differences in MSD Expression
Body Size and Composition
Impact of Body Size and Composition on Muscle
Impact of Body Size and Composition on Tendons/Ligaments
Impact of Body Size and Composition on Bone
Impact of Body Size and Composition on Cartilage
Fatigue Failure Implications Regarding Personal Characteristics
Summary
Bibliography
13 Using Fatigue Failure Principles to Assess MSD Risk. Introduction
Application of Fatigue Failure Principles to MSD Risk Assessment
General Principles of Fatigue Failure Theory
Suggested Criteria for Risk Assessment Tools
Fatigue‐Failure Based Risk Assessment Tools
The Lifting Fatigue Failure Tool (LiFFT)
Model logic
Using LiFFT
Validation of the LiFFT tool
LiFFT summary
The Distal Upper Extremity Tool
Model logic
Using DUET
Validation of DUET Model
DUET summary
The Shoulder Tool
Model logic
Using the shoulder tool
The shoulder tool validation
Summary of The Shoulder Tool
Current and Future Developments
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Exoskeletons (ExoLiFFT)
Using Fatigue Failure Techniques to Evaluate Real‐Time Exposure Assessment Data
Assessment of the Effects of Job Rotation
Accounting for Personal Factors and Healing
Summary
Bibliography
14 Implications for MSD Prevention. Introduction
The importance of Assessing Cumulative Damage
Identifying and Managing Risky Tasks
Stress Reduction/Cycle Reduction
The Load/Repetition Trade‐off
The Central Role of Tissue Strength
Impaired Healing and the Fatigue Life of Musculoskeletal Tissues
Rest
Job Rotation
Exoskeletons and MSD Prevention
Summary
Bibliography
15 Optimizing Musculoskeletal Health. Introduction
General
Avoid a Sedentary Lifestyle
Moderate Exercise
Resistance Training
Nutrition
Avoid Obesity
Sleep
Reduce Alcohol Consumption and Smoking
Combatting the Effects of Aging
Reducing MSD Risk in Occupational Settings. Avoid Cumulative Damage Development from Repeated Stress
Duty Cycles and Work Break Schedules
Avoid Job Rotation to Balance Biomechanical Demands
Avoid Non‐neutral Postures
Maximize Fatigue Life
Reduce Psychological Stress
Treatment of Injuries
RICE
Heat and Cold Therapy
Manual Therapies
Medications
Other Regenerative Treatments
Summary
Bibliography
16 Status of Knowledge and Unanswered Questions. Introduction
Improved Characterization of Musculoskeletal Tissue Properties
Improved Characterization of the Damage Response to Repeated Stress of Musculoskeletal Tissues In Vivo
Characterization of the Remodeling and Healing Responses in Musculoskeletal Tissues
Musculoskeletal Stress Thresholds
Musculoskeletal Tissues in the Resting State
Risk Assessment in Epidemiological Studies
Assessing the Risk of Multiple Loading Modes
Dwell and Combination Loading
Summary
Bibliography
Index. a
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