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Acknowledgments
Introduction
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The capitalist mode of production brought about the rise of an entrepreneurial class—and with it, the notion of personal achievement and individuality as a social ideal. At the same time, the increasing prosperity of a new middle class and the broader accumulation of personal wealth and transferable inheritances demanded strict sexual morality, especially for women. British historian Jeffrey Weeks describes the contradictions of this new family structure: The bourgeois family was “both the privileged location of emotionality and love…and simultaneously an effective policeman of sexual behavior.”26
In contrast to the prosperous middle class, industrial life was literally killing the working class in mid-nineteenth century England. Middle-class men in the rural area of Rutland, England, lived to be fifty-two, while working-class “men” died at the average age of seventeen in industrial centers like Manchester, sixteen in Bethnal Green, and fifteen in Liverpool.27 Textile mill owners employed mostly women and children at far less pay than men for long hours of arduous labor, which led to illness and mortality rates that threatened to cut into owners’ profits.
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