Оглавление
Stephen W. S. McKeever. A Course in Luminescence Measurements and Analyses for Radiation Dosimetry
A Course in Luminescence Measurements and Analyses for Radiation Dosimetry
Contents
List of Illustrations
List of Tables
Guide
Pages
Preface
Acknowledgments
Disclaimer
About the Companion Website
Part I Theory, Models, and Simulations
1 Introduction
1.1 How Did We Get Here?
Exercise 1.1
1.2 Introductory Concepts for TL, OSL, and RPL. 1.2.1 Equilibrium and Metastable States
1.2.2 Fermi-Dirac Statistics
1.2.3 Related Processes
1.3 Brief Overview of Modern Applications in Radiation Dosimetry
1.3.1 Personal Dosimetry
1.3.2 Medical Dosimetry
1.3.3 Space Dosimetry
1.3.4 Retrospective Dosimetry
1.3.5 Environmental Dosimetry
Exercise 1.2
1.4 Bibliography of Luminescence Dosimetry Applications
2 Defects and Their Relation to Luminescence
2.1 Defects in Solids. 2.1.1 Point Defects
2.1.2 Extended Defects
2.1.3 Non-Crystalline Materials
2.2 Trapping, Detrapping, and Recombination Processes. 2.2.1 Excitation Probabilities. 2.2.1.1Thermal Excitation
Exercise 2.1
2.2.1.2 Optical Excitation
Exercise 2.2
2.2.2 Trapping and Recombination Processes
Exercise 2.3
Notes
3 TL and OSL
3.1 Rate Equations: OTOR Model
3.2 Analytical Solutions: TL Equations. 3.2.1 First-Order Kinetics
Exercise 3.1 The Exponential Integral
3.2.2 Second-Order and General-Order Kinetics
Exercise 3.2 The General One-Trap (GOT) Equation
Exercise 3.3 Shift in Peak Position with Dose
3.2.3 Mixed-Order Kinetics
Exercise 3.4 General-Order and Mixed-Order Kinetics
3.3 Analytical Solutions: OSL Equations
3.3.1 First-Order Kinetics
3.3.1.1Expressions for CW-OSL
3.3.1.2Expressions for LM-OSL
Exercise 3.5 LM-OSL
3.3.1.3Expressions for POSL
3.3.1.4Expressions for VE-OSL
Exercise 3.6 Non-monochromatic stimulation light for CW-OSL and LM-OSL
3.3.2 Non-First-Order Kinetics
3.4 More Complex Models: Interactive Kinetics. 3.4.1 Thermoluminescence
Exercise 3.7 Interactive Kinetics
3.4.2 Optically Stimulated Luminescence
Exercise 3.8 CW-OSL interactive kinetics with large m
3.5 Trap Distributions
Exercise 3.9 LM-OSL with a distribution in E
Exercise 3.10 One-Dimensional Fredholm Equation
3.6 Quasi-Equilibrium (QE) 3.6.1 Numerical Solutions: No QE Assumption
3.6.2 P and Q Analysis
Exercise 3.11 11P & Q
3.6.3 Analytical Solutions: No QE Assumption
3.7 Thermal and Optical Effects
3.7.1 Thermal Quenching. 3.7.1.1Mott-Seitz Model
3.7.1.2Schön-Klasens Model
3.7.1.3Tests for Thermal Quenching
3.7.1.3.1 τ -versus-T
3.7.1.3.2Luminescence Intensity versus T
Exercise 3.12 Thermal Quenching
3.7.2 Thermal Effects on OSL
3.7.2.1Effects of Shallow Traps
Exercise 3.13 Modelling OSL emission with the IMTS model, including shallow traps
3.7.2.2Effects of Deep Traps: Thermally Transferred OSL (TT-OSL)
3.7.3 More Temperature Effects for TL and OSL
3.7.3.1Phonon-coupling
3.7.3.2Shallow Traps
3.7.3.3Sub-Conduction Band Excitation
Thermally assisted OSL (TA-OSL)
3.7.3.4Random Local Potential Fluctuations (RLPF)
3.7.4 Optical Effects on TL
3.7.4.1Bleaching
Exercise 3.15 Modelling optical bleaching of TLs
3.7.4.2Phototransferred TL (PTTL)
3.8 Tunneling, Localized and Semi-Localized Transitions
3.8.1 Tunneling. 3.8.1.1General Considerations
3.8.1.2Ground-State Tunneling
Exercise 3.15 Tunneling (1)
3.8.1.3Excited-State Tunneling
Exercise 3.16 Tunneling (2)
3.8.1.4Decay during Irradiation
3.8.1.5Effect of Tunneling on TL and OSL
3.8.2 Localized and Semi-Localized Transition Models
3.8.2.1Localized Transition Model
3.8.2.2Semi-Localized Transition Model. 3.8.2.2.13 Templer Model
Exercise 3.16 Semi-Localized Transitions
3.8.2.2.2Mandowski Model
3.8.2.3Semi-Localized Transitions and the TL Glow Curve
3.9 Master Equations
Notes
4 RPL Models and Kinetics
4.1 Radiophotoluminescence and Its Differences with TL and OSL
4.2 Background Considerations
4.3 Buildup Kinetics. 4.3.1 Electronic Processes
Exercise 4.1 RPL BuildUp (1)
4.3.2 Ionic Processes
Exercise 4.2 RPL BuildUp (2)
4.3.3 More on Buildup Processes. 4.3.3.1After Irradiation
4.3.3.2During Irradiation
4.3.3.3Temperature Dependence
Exercise 4.3 RPL Buildup (3)
5 Analysis of TL and OSL Curves
5.1 Analysis of TL Glow Curves
5.2 Analytical Methods for TL
5.2.1 Partial-Peak Methods. 5.2.1.1A Single TL Peak with a Discrete Value for Et
5.2.1.2Multiple Overlapping Peaks, and Trap Energy Distributions
5.2.1.2.1 Step-annealing Analysis
Exercise 5.1 Peak cleaning using step annealing and the IRM
5.2.1.2.2 Fractional-Glow Analysis
Exercise 5.2 IRM and the fractional-glow method
5.2.1.2.3 High-irradiation-temperatures Analysis
5.2.1.2.4 Tm-Tstop Analysis
Exercise 5.3 Tm-Tstop analysis
5.2.2 Whole-Peak Methods
Exercise 5.4 Whole-peak analysis
5.2.3 Peak-Shape Methods
Exercise 5.5 Peak-shape analysis (I)
Exercise 5.6 Peak-shape analysis (II)
5.2.4 Peak-Position Methods
Exercise 5.7 Heating-rate analysis (I)
Exercise 5.8 Heating-rate analysis (II)
5.2.5 Peak-Fitting Methods. 5.2.5.1Principles
Exercise 5.9 Peak-fitting analysis (I)
5.2.5.2Peak Resolution
5.2.5.3CGCD Using More-Than-One Heating Rate
Exercise 5.10 Peak-fitting analysis (II)
5.2.5.4Continuous Trap Distributions
Exercise 5.11 Gaussian distribution of traps
5.2.6 Calculation of s
5.2.7 Potential Distortions to TL Glow Curves
5.2.7.1Thermal Contact
5.2.7.2 Thermal Quenching
5.2.7.3Emission Spectra
Exercise 5.12 TL emission spectra issues
5.2.7.4Self-absorption
5.2.8 Summary of Steps to Take Using TL Curve Fitting
5.2.9 Isothermal Analysis
Exercise 5.13 Isothermal analysis
5.3 Analytical Methods for OSL
5.3.1 Curve Shape Methods. 5.3.1.1Cw-Osl
5.3.1.2Lm-Osl
5.3.2 Variable Stimulation Rate Methods: LM-OSL
Exercise 5.14 Determination of σp from single CW-OSL or LM-OSL curves
5.3.3 Curve-Fitting Methods. 5.3.3.1The Curve Overlap Problem
Exercise 5.15 CW-OSL and LM-OSL curve fitting
5.3.3.2Simultaneous Fitting of LM-OSL Peaks Generated by Varying the Stimulation Rate
5.3.4 How Can the Number of Traps Contributing to OSL Be Determined?
5.3.4.1tmax-tstop Analysis
Exercise 5.16 tmax-tstop plots
5.3.4.2Comparison with TL
5.3.5 Variation with Stimulation Wavelength
5.3.6 Trap Distributions
Exercise 5.17 LM-OSL Curve fitting for a distribution of optical trap depths
5.3.7 Emission Wavelength
Exercise 5.18 OSL emission spectra issues
5.3.8 Summary of Steps to Take Using OSL Curve Fitting
5.3.9 OSL Due to Optically Assisted Tunneling
Exercise 5.19 Excited-state tunneling and LM-OSL
5.3.10 VE-OSL
Notes
6 Dependence on Dose
6.1 TL, OSL, or RPL versus Dose
6.2 Dependence on Dose. 6.2.1 OTOR Model
Exercise 6.1 The OTOR Model
6.2.1.1Dose-Response Relationships: Linear, Supralinear, Superlinear, and Sublinear
Exercise 6.2 Supralinearity and Superlinearity
6.2.2 Interactive Models: Competition Effects. 6.2.2.1Competition during Irradiation
6.2.2.2Competition during Trap Emptying
Exercise 6.3 Competition during trap emptying (I)
Exercise 6.4 Competition during trap emptying (II)
6.2.3 Spatial Effects
Exercise 6.5 Spatial Effects
6.2.4 Sensitivity and Sensitization
6.2.5 High Dose Effects. 6.2.5.1Loss of Sensitivity
Exercise 6.6 High Dose
6.2.5.2TL and OSL Changes in Shape
Exercise 6.7 OSL decay as a function of dose
6.2.6 Charged Particles, Tracks, and Track Interaction
6.2.6.1Dose and Fluence Dependence: Low Fluence
6.2.6.2High Fluence: Track Interaction
Exercise 6.8 Track overlap (I)
Exercise 6.9 Track overlap (II)
6.2.7 RPL. 6.2.7.1Buildup during Irradiation: A Special Kind of Supralinearity
Exercise 6.10 RPL buildup (I)
6.2.7.2Buildup after Irradiation: Linear Response to Dose
Exercise 6.11 RPL buildup (II)
Notes
Part II Experimental Examples: Luminescence Dosimetry Materials
7 Thermoluminescence
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Lithium Fluoride
7.2.1 LiF:Mg,Ti. 7.2.1.1Structure and Defects
7.2.1.2TL Glow Curves
Exercise 7.1 Clustering
7.2.1.3TL Emission Spectra
Exercise 7.2 Optical Absorption Bands
7.2.1.4TL Glow-Curve Analysis
Exercise 7.3 GLOCANIN Analysis I
Exercise 7.4 GLOCANIN Analysis II
7.2.1.5Changes to the Glow-Curve Shape with Dose and Ionization Density
Exercise 7.5 TL glow curves and Emission Spectra from LiF:Mg,Ti
7.2.1.6Competition
7.2.1.7Photon Dose-Response Characteristics
7.2.1.8Charged-Particle Dose-Response Characteristics
Exercise 7.6 TL peak 5 efficiency for different charged particles
7.2.2 LiF:MCP. 7.2.2.1Structure and Defects
7.2.2.2TL Glow Curves
7.2.2.3TL Emission Spectra
Exercise 7.7 Analysis of emission spectra for LiF:MCP
7.2.2.4TL Glow-Curve Analysis
Exercise 7.8 LiF:MCP glow-curve analysis
7.2.2.5Changes to the Glow-Curve Shape with Dose and Ionization Density
Exercise 7.9 TL and self-absorption
7.2.2.6Photon Dose-Response Characteristics
7.2.2.7Charged-Particle Dose-Response Characteristics
7.2.3 Approximately Right; Precisely Wrong
Notes
8 Optically Stimulated Luminescence
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Aluminum Oxide. 8.2.1 Al2O3:C. 8.2.1.1Structure and Defects
8.2.1.2OSL Curves
Exercise 8.1 Al2O3:C OSL Curve Shapes
8.2.1.3Emission and Excitation Spectra
Exercise 8.2 F- and F+-bands
Exercise 8.3 CW-OSL and LM-OSL
Exercise 8.4 Thermal and Optical Trap Depths in α-Al2O3:C
8.2.1.4Temperature Dependence
8.2.1.5Photon Dose-Response Characteristics
8.2.1.6Charged-Particle Dose-Response Characteristics
Exercise 8.5 OSL and TL response versus LET
8.2.2 A Final Observation
Notes
9 Radiophotoluminescence
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Phosphate Glasses. 9.2.1 Ag-doped Phosphate Glass. 9.2.1.1Formulation, Growth, and RPL Centers
9.2.1.2Emission and Excitation Spectra: RPL Decay Curves and Signal Measurement
Exercise 9.1 Absorption and Excitation Spectra
Exercise 9.2 RPL Buildup
Exercise 9.3 RPL Decay Curves and Signal Processing
9.2.1.3Buildup Curves: Temperature Dependence; UV Reversal
Exercise 9.4 RPL measurement during irradiation
9.2.1.4Photon Dose-Response Characteristics
Exercise 9.5 Emission spectra at high doses
9.2.1.5Charged-Particle Dose-Response Characteristics
9.2.2 Final Remarks Concerning RPL from Ag-doped Phosphate Glass
9.3 Fluorescent Nuclear Track Detectors. 9.3.1 Al2O3:C, Mg. 9.3.1.1Introduction
9.3.1.2RPL in Al2O3:C,Mg
9.3.1.3FNTD Imaging of Charged-Particle Tracks
Exercise 9.6 FNTD: luminescence amplitude histograms
9.3.1.4FNTD for Neutron Detection
9.3.2 LiF. 9.3.2.1RPL in LiF
9.3.2.2Fntd
9.3.3 Alkali Phosphate Glass. 9.3.3.1Fntd
Exercise 9.7 FNTDs: Comparisons
Notes
10 Some Examples of More Complex TL, OSL, and RPL Phenomena
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Feldspar. 10.2.1 Structure and Defects
10.2.2 Energy Levels and Density of States
10.2.3 Emission Spectra
10.2.4 OSL Phenomena. 10.2.4.1Band Diagram
10.2.4.2OSL Excitation Spectra
Exercise 10.1 Excitation Spectra (I)
10.2.4.3OSL Curve Description
Exercise 10.2 IRSL Decay Curves
Exercise 10.3 Excitation Spectra (II)
10.2.5 TL Phenomena. 10.2.5.1Glow-Curve Description
Exercise 10.4 TL Lost versus OSL or IRSL
10.2.5.2TL Analysis
Exercise 10.5 Excited-State Tunneling
Exercise 10.6 IRM analysis of TL
10.2.6 RPL Phenomena. 10.2.6.1RPL Emission and Excitation Spectra
10.2.6.2RPL Temperature Dependence
10.2.7 What Can Be Concluded?
10.3 Aluminosilicate Glass
10.3.1 Structure and Composition
10.3.2 OSL Phenomena. 10.3.2.1OSL Curve Description
Exercise 10.7 OSL curve shapes
10.3.2.2OSL Excitation Spectrum
10.3.2.3OSL Fading
Exercise 10.8 OSL fading I
Exercise 10.9 OSL fading II
10.3.2.4Potential Uses in Radiation Dosimetry
10.3.3 TL Phenomena. 10.3.3.1Glow-Curve Description
Exercise 10.10 TL and thermally assisted tunneling
10.3.3.2TL Emission Spectrum
10.3.3.3TL Analysis
10.3.3.4 TL Fading
10.3.3.5Potential Uses in Radiation Dosimetry
10.4 Final Remarks
Notes
11 Concluding Remarks
11.1 The Importance of Defects. 11.1.1 The Ideal Luminescence Dosimeter
11.1.2 How to Detect Defect Clustering and Tunneling
11.1.2.1Et and s Analysis
11.1.2.2TL and OSL Curve Shapes
11.1.2.3Fading
11.1.2.4Spectral Measurements
Exercise 11.1 1TL from LiF:Mg,Ti
11.2 The Prospects for “Designer” TLDs, OSLDs, and RPLDs
References
Index
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