Оглавление
Steven J. Steinberg. GIS Research Methods
Contents
Preface
Organization of the book
Chapter 1: Why think spatially?
Chapter 2: Spatial conceptualization and implementation
Chapter 3: Research design
Chapter 4: Research ethics and spatial inquiry
Chapter 5: Measurement, sampling, and boundaries
Chapter 6: Using secondary digital and nondigital data sources in research
Chapter 7: Survey and interview spatial data collection and databases
Chapter 8: Public participation GIS
Chapter 9: Qualitative spatial ethnographic field research
Chapter 10: Evaluation research from a spatial perspective
Chapter 11: Conducting analysis with ArcGIS software
Chapter 12: Spatial analysis of qualitative data
Chapter 13: Communicating results and visualizing spatial information
Chapter 14: Linking results to policy and action
Chapter 15: Future directions for geospatial use
Acknowledgments
About the authors
Chapter 1. Why think spatially?
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Using spatial knowledge
What is GIS?
Understanding geographic information systems
A new approach to research methods
The spatial advantage for research
Spatial thinking
Space and place
Spatial analysis
Historic examples
Spatial thinking and social inequality in Chicago slums
Railroads as indicators of civilized society
Spatial thinking in research
Visualize and communicate
Contextualize
Integrate
Holistic understanding
Implement
Multiple research methods approach
Sociospatial thinking
Historic poverty example
GIS as a useful tool
Review questions
Additional readings and references
Relevant websites
Chapter 2. Spatial conceptualization and implementation
Learning objectives
Key concepts
The G in GIS
Difficulties with the G
Expanding the G
The I in GIS
Extending the I
The S in GIS
Difficulties with the S
Conceptual data model: Incorporating GIS
Analytical approach: Phases of abstraction
Reality
Logical data model
Physical data model
Determining project goals
Guiding questions
Questions about concept
Questions about data
Questions about location
Questions for analysis
Steps in the research process
Public health example
Moving forward
Review questions
Additional readings and references
Relevant websites
Chapter 3. Research design
Learning objectives
Key concepts
What is the purpose of your research?
Descriptive research
Exploration
Explanation
Deductive versus inductive approach to research
Stages of sociospatial research for deductive research
Choose a topic
Define the problem
Conduct a literature review
Develop a hypothesis
Develop a conceptual model
Choose research methods
Operationalization: Measurement
Collect and prepare the data
Ground truth (verify) the data
Analyze the data
Share the results
Grounded theory: GIS using an inductive approach
Sociospatial grounded theory using GIS
Determine a topic of interest
Determine a geographic location of interest
Collect the data
Geocode the data
Ground truthing the data
Analyze the data and look for spatial and social patterns
Generate theory (spatial and social)
Moving forward
Review questions
Additional readings and references
Relevant websites
Chapter 4. Research ethics and spatial inquiry
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Research ethics and GIS
Social implications
Cultural implications
Political implications
Errors caused by analysis
Existing data sources
Variations in data accuracy, scale, and temporal change
Errors in human inquiry
Inaccurate observations
Overgeneralization
Selective observation
Illogical reasoning
Ecological fallacy
Ethics and data collection
Privacy
Anonymity
Confidentiality
Data aggregation
Masking
Primary and secondary data
Ethics and data sharing
Ethics and data storage
Review questions
Additional reading and references
Relevant websites
Chapter 5. Measurement, sampling, and boundaries
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Moving beyond your personal experience
Choosing a sampling method for your spatial analysis
Type of data source: Primary or secondary
Concepts, variables, and attributes
Operationalization of concepts in GIS
Different data types: Matching geographic and social variables
Data sampling and GIS
Probability and nonprobability sampling
Nonprobability sampling
Purposive sampling
Available subjects
Snowball sampling
Quota sampling
Random sampling
Study area and sample unit boundaries
Edge effects
The modifiable area unit problem (MAUP)
Selecting boundaries
Review questions
Additional readings and references
Relevant websites
Chapter 6. Using secondary digital and nondigital data sources in research
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Evaluating data sources
Searching for secondary data
Evaluating data suitability
Obtaining GIS data from the Internet
Choosing GIS variables
Questions to consider about data
1. What is the main goal of your study (predictive, comparative, or descriptive)?
2. Does your study involve a variety of concepts and variables, and do their locations matter?
3. What data exist for your study location and/or variables?
4. Does your study involve a comparison of different locations?
5. Does distance play a role in your study?
6. What are your project resources?
Validity and reliability
Validity
Validity of secondary data and GIS
Reliability
Reliability and GIS
Obtaining data from offline sources
Using news as a source of data
Review questions
Additional readings and references
Relevant websites
Chapter 7. Survey and interview spatial data collection and databases
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Developing your own data
Survey-based data collection
Survey sampling
Interview-based data collection
When is it appropriate to use an interview?
Interview sampling
Spatializing your survey or interview questions
Using GIS in the field, with and without a computer. Without a field computer
With a field computer
Data collection considerations
Address matching
Using the Global Positioning System
Creating basemaps from scratch
Unit of analysis
Database concepts and GIS
Rules for GIS database development
Creating GIS-friendly data tables
Space and case
Data format and coding considerations
Software output formats
Review questions
Additional readings and references
Relevant websites
Chapter 8. Public participation GIS
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Public participation GIS and participatory GIS
GIS as a tool for voice and empowerment
Using public participation GIS as part of mixed methods
Does using GIS mean I have to be “high-tech” in the field?
Using a computer to record the data
Internet-based methods
Volunteered geographic information
Maps of your research area
Qualitative data and GIS files
Conducting a PPGIS data collection
Decide which type of PPGIS
Starting from the bottom up: The value of inductive spatial research
Choose a general topic to investigate
Define a geographic area of interest
Define the community of interest
Who lives in the community of interest?
Finding regional economic data
Locating historic data
Understanding a community through newspapers
Using spatial data to enhance the understanding of a community
Talk with local leaders
Approach local groups to see about conducting PPGIS
Earn the trust of the local community
Developing a good working relationship with a particular group
Identifying a trusted person in the group with which you are trying to work
Organizing a face-to-face meeting
Establish agreements about how you will share your findings and data with the local groups
Preparing for your own PPGIS session
The right location
Time
Map of the study area
Clear directions
Group monitors
Colored markers or pens
A flat surface for the exercise
Incentives or prizes
Refreshments
Review questions
Additional readings and references
Relevant websites
Chapter 9. Qualitative spatial ethnographic field research
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Sociospatial documentation
Integrating GIS into field research
Technology in the field
Access to basemaps
Ground truth map data
Identify local sources of data
Cultural perceptions of technology
Results of the study
Public communication
Ethnography
A spatial ethnography?
Case study research
What role would a GIS play?
Oral history interviews
How to integrate GIS?
Participant observation
So where does GIS fit into the study?
Data cataloging
Review questions
Additional readings and references
Relevant websites
Chapter 10. Evaluation research from a spatial perspective
Learning objectives
Key concepts
What is evaluation research?
Why do evaluation research?
Evaluation research questions
What populations or entities are the programs helping, the target population or another population (latent population)?
Which programs, policies, or interventions are succeeding, and which are not?
Specifically, how are the programs, policies, or interventions helping certain populations?
What can be done to improve the resource use of these programs, policies, or interventions?
Sociospatial evaluation research
Sociospatial evaluation research questions
What is the geographic target area for your project or program?
What natural and environmental features affect the target population?
What human-constructed features affect the target population?
Where are the programs, policies, or interventions both succeeding and falling short?
What are the geographical features that limit the success of various programs, policies, or interventions?
What are the spatial features of an environment that help to foster the success of various programs, policies, or interventions?
Designing an evaluation research project
What are you evaluating?
Determining your goals using benchmarks
Group versus individual focus
Sociospatial evaluative focus group
Evaluation interview
Evaluation survey
Evaluative spatial observations
Evaluating existing data or documents
Presenting the spatial evaluation
Introduction to the evaluation
Project background
Methods
Results
Conclusions and recommendations
The challenges and benefits of evaluation research
Review questions
Additional readings and references
Relevant websites
Chapter 11. Conducting analysis with ArcGIS software
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Approaching the analysis
What questions did you ask?
What tools and analyses are applicable?
Organizing the analysis
Analysis techniques
Cartographic classification
Buffer and overlay
Buffer
Why are buffers popular as an analytical tool?
Overlay
Proximity polygons and nearest neighbors
Social networks and network analysis
Network analysis
Least cost analysis
Topographic tools
Spatial interpolation and simulation
Modeling
Raster modeling
When to use GIS as a problem-solving tool
Potential pitfalls
Revisiting the accessibility example
Test it
Virtual reality is still not reality
Spatial statistics
ArcGIS Spatial Analyst
Review questions
Additional readings and references
Relevant websites
Chapter 12. Spatial analysis of qualitative data
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Qualitative data and GIS
What are qualitative data?
Spatial qualitative analysis
How do you know if your data are qualitative?
Different data sources
Historical data
Newspapers
Interviews with local leaders
Technological equivalents
Steps for spatial qualitative analysis
Step 1: Creating a list of data types and their origins
Step 2: Determining the purpose of your analysis
Step 3: Determining themes and creating variables
Identifying relevant themes
Defining themes
Giving themes variable names
Step 4: Coding themes and quantifying
Creating frequency tables
Step 5: Spatializing your data
Step 6: Identifying spatial patterns in your data
Step 7: Drawing conclusions
Review questions
Additional readings and references
Relevant websites
Chapter 13. Communicating results and visualizing spatial information
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Keys to effective communication
Audience
Purpose
Information
Interest in the topic
Map context
Culture and map visualization
GIS output
Data visualization
Statistical output
Exporting data to other applications
Selecting the mode of communication
Web-based information
Reports
Pamphlet
Poster
Oral or slide presentations
Preparing the final product
Goal
Geography
Audience
Resources
Temporality
Conclusion
Review questions
Additional readings and references
Relevant websites
Chapter 14. Linking results to policy and action
Learning objectives
Key concepts
GIS and visualizing policy
What is policy?
Spatially based policy
How does someone create policy?
Challenges to creating good policy
Limited time to make decisions
Working with decision makers
Limited knowledge
Politics of spatial data
GIS in governmental decision making
A fire example
Sylmar fire
Longitudinal fire data example
Coordinating data
Decision support systems
From maps to action
How to create good place-based policy
Use multiple methods
Actively consider data
Interdisciplinary approaches
Stakeholder diversity
Geographic boundaries
Natural resources, place, and use
Temporality and control
Foster transparency
Final thoughts
Review questions
Additional readings and references
Relevant websites
Chapter 15. Future directions for geospatial use
Learning objectives
Key concepts
Imagine the future
Geospatial agility
Image versus data
A rebirth of spatial awareness
GIS is an art form
GIS as change technology
Identifying social inequality
The role of geospatial crowdsourcing
New directions for GIS-based research
Spatial data and smartphones
Visualization and GIS
Faster response time
Parting thoughts
Suggestions for student research projects
Review questions
Additional readings and references
Relevant websites
Index
