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Steve Vanderheiden. Environmental Political Theory
Contents
Guide
Pages
ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICAL THEORY
Copyright page
Glossary
1 Introduction and Approach
Ideas and environmental politics
Sustainability as emergent and disruptive ideal
Sustainability as transformational ideal
Notes
2 Environmental Change and the Sustainability Imperative
Ecological limits and sustainability imperatives
Ecological limits: origins and possible responses
Ecological limits and their discontents
International responses to ecological limits
Ecological limits and US politics
Business as usual
The eco-fortress
The just transition
Notes
3 Freedom
Concepts and conceptions
Freedom as culprit in commons tragedies
Hardin on the tragedy of the commons
Freedom and incentive structures
Neoliberal freedom and scarcity
Classic liberalism and neoliberal freedom
Locke’s property theory and provisos
Nozick’s entitlement theory and the proviso
Prometheanism and the proviso
Neoliberal freedom and externalities
Individuality, consumerism, and sovereignty
Consumerism, consumption, and freedom
Neoliberal freedom and harm
Conclusions: sustainability and the ideal of freedom
Notes
4 Democracy
Democracy and the environment
Democracy as incompatible with sustainability?
Environment and democracy
Reconciling democracy and sustainability
Two kinds of democratic legitimacy
Democracy and doughnuts
Rights as democratic constraints on democracy
Alternatives to democracy
Technocracy as alternative to democracy
Technocracy as compatible with democracy
Reconciling technocracy with democracy
Eco-authoritarianism as alternative to democracy
Technocracy as antidote to democracy’s failings
Reforming environmental democracy
Greening democracy
Democracy and global governance
Conclusions: environmental change and the democratic ideal
Notes
5 Progress
Conceptions of progress within a contested social compass
Progress in Western political thought
Ancient and medieval conceptions of progress
Growth-as-progress in early liberalism
Scarcity and modern conceptions of progress
Growth as core state imperative
Progress reoriented
Challenging the growth imperative
Wilderness, ecology, and the land ethic
Toxic chemicals and the war on nature
Rethinking links between growth and progress
Toward a post-growth conception of progress
The HDI as progress index
Sustainable development goals
Green growth vs. post-growth conceptions
Conclusions: redefining progress to account for ecological limits
Notes
6 Equality
Equality as ideal
Factual and moral equality
Equality between species
Human exceptionalism
Rights and equality
Environmental rights
Equality as equivalence: the issue of carbon offsets
Carbon equivalence
Offsets and equity in international carbon trading
Equality and sufficiency: competing standards
Alternatives to equality
Sufficiency and sufficientarianism
Inequality and the environment
Conclusions: environmental imperatives and the equality ideal
Notes
7 Agency and Responsibility
Key concepts in agency and responsibility
Agents and agency
Moral and legal standing
Ethical individualism and the environment
Challenges to ethical individualism
Collectivities, value and moral standing
Individualism, collective responsibility and climate change
Climate change, agency, and responsibility
Threshold effects, harm and responsibility
Fragmented agency and responsibility
Uncertainty and responsibility
Agents and levels of analysis: who should act?
Non-state agents and responsibility for climate change
Individual agents and remedies
Holding persons responsible for climate change
Transparency and responsibility-taking
Collective responsibility
Conclusions: agency and responsibility and the environmental crisis
Notes
8 Community
The ancient ideal of community
Community in modern political thought
On anthropocentrism
Anthropocentrism and the environmental crisis
From biotic to planetary community
Human exceptionalism
Cultivating planetary community
National identity and environmental protection
Nations and peoples as allies of environmental protection
Nationality, territory, and environment
Cosmopolitanism and the global community
Ethical obligations and distant strangers
Theorizing cosmopolitan and planetary membership
Environmental citizenship and its associated virtues
Global community and common heritage
Conclusions: environment and the community ideal
Notes
9 Sovereignty
Sovereignty as principle and in practice
Elements of sovereignty
Sovereignty as foe? The debate over the Convention on Biological Diversity
Strong sovereignty and isolationist anti-environmentalism
Assessing Senate GOP sovereignty claims
Dogmatic versus pragmatic sovereignty
Trump and the sovereignty principle
The Trump Doctrine
Sovereignty and sustainability
Greening sovereignty
Progressive sovereignty
Humanitarian intervention and the evolution of sovereignty
Sovereignty and sustainability
Reconstructing sovereignty
Conclusions: sovereignty and the ecological crisis
Notes
10 Justice
Rawlsian distributive justice
Other conceptions of justice
Environmental justice as social movement objective
Two environmental justice campaigns
Environmental justice movements, discourses, applications
Environment and intergenerational justice
Challenges for intergenerational justice: identity and uncertainty
Challenges for intergenerational justice: currency
Natural resources and the scope and currency of distributive justice
Combining scope and currency in resource access
On natural resource and climate justice
Mitigation and burden-sharing equity
Adaptation and equity in remedies
Conclusions: environment and the justice ideal
Notes
11 Conclusions: The Just and Sustainable Society
Notes
Index
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Steve Vanderheiden
all-affected principle:under this principle, accountability binds decision makers to those affected by them by allowing the latter to hold the former to account in their decisionsAnthropocene:the proposed current geological age, characterized by human activity having a dominant influence on climate and the environmentbiotic community:group of organisms that interact with each other in an ecosystemcarbon offsets:reduction in carbon dioxide emissions to counterbalance emissions made elsewhere (for example, offsetting one’s emissions from airline travel by planting trees to sequester a comparable amount of carbon)carrying capacity:capacity of a system (usually measured in population size) to support life without ecological degradationchoice architecture:design of different ways of presenting choices in terms of the behaviors that they tend to yieldconsiderability:the status of being worthy of moral considerationconsumerism:a social and economic order that encourages the private acquisition and consumption of goods and services in continually increasing amountsdistributive justice:an account of justice that focuses on how laws, policies, and institutions result in unequal distributions of benefits and burdens in society, often including principles defining a just distributionecological modernization:a school of thought within the social sciences which maintains that economic growth can be reconciled with sustainability imperatives, typically through the use of efficient technologies and designecological steady-state:an economy with a constant stock of natural capital and stable population size that does not exceed the capacity of its ecosystem to sustainably yield resources and absorb wastes over timeepistemic authority:a type of authority or persuasive power vested in certain persons by virtue of their expertise (in contrast with democratic authority, which depends on claims to represent or be responsive to the people at large); lay persons may defer to the judgment of experts or otherwise attach undue weight to their opinions on prescriptive matters due to their knowledge claims on related factsethical holism:claim that wholes such as ecosystems have moral standing, apart from that of their individual membersexternality:unremunerated cost of economic exchange that is borne by neither buyer nor seller, but imposed on society at largefood security:according to the FAO, “food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”global justice integrationists:following Caney, a global justice “isolationist” applies distributive justice principles to particular goods, like greenhouse emissions, while an “integrationist” refuses to do so, insisting that such principles can apply only to whole bundles of goods (social, political, economic, environmental), such that shortages of one kind of good can be compensated with more of anothergreen consumerism:movement or practice of buying “green” products or services in an effort to reform production processes through consumer demand, and thus to mitigate environmental degradationhuman exceptionalism:the belief that humans are categorically different from other animals in fact, typically used to justify differential status or treatment of nonhumanshuman security:protection of persons and peoples against serious threats, including violence and deprivationhumanitarian intervention:use of force by a state or coalition of states against another state for the purpose of protecting human rightsinstrumental value:value that we attribute to things in the world because of their potential to contribute to human welfare (in contrast with intrinsic value, which is when such things are viewed as valuable in themselves)international Paretianism:condition (cast by Posner & Weisbach as a constraint on international politics) in which an international agreement advances the interests of all state parties to it and no state is made worse off by itjurisdiction:practical authority to make legal decisions and administer justicelaissez faire:policy of governments to refrain from interfering in markets, e.g. through regulations to protect workers or the environmentland ethic:from Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac, the ethical principle that “a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community”nation:a community of people, when conscious of its unity, desire for autonomy, and shared interestsnecessitous migrants:forcibly displaced migrants, whether stateless due to fleeing violence or through loss of territory, who lack a practical ability to return to their territories of origin or recent residencenegative liberty:a conception in which persons are free from impediments posed by othersovershoot:temporary condition of a population exceeding its carry capacity, resulting in ecological degradation and consequent reductions to or collapse of that system’s carrying capacitypeoples:particular groups of persons that share features such as a common language or culture, historical residence of a place, or other distinguishing contributors to group identitypopular sovereignty:principle that state authority originates in, and continues to require, popular consentpositive liberty:requires that an individual have the power and resources to fulfill their potentialpostmaterial values:values not associated with physical or economic wellbeing; thought to manifest more strongly in persons or societies where material (i.e. related to physical or economic security) values have largely been metprior appropriation:principle that the earliest users of water for beneficial purposes have rights to continue using that water (key legal principle of water law in the American west)private sphere:domain of activity in which individual actions are considered private, to be protected from the interference of others (in contrast to the public sphere, which is properly subjected to political scrutiny)procedural legitimacy:quality of a political decision that issues from the processes by which it was made, yielding the belief by those bound by it that the decision is validPromethean:view (named for Prometheus from Greek mythology) that technological innovation would allow humans to overcome ecological limits, making resources practically abundantremedial liability:requirement entailed by an agent’s responsibility for an outcome whereby the agent must provide some kind of remedy (e.g. compensation) for that outcomescientific racism:pseudoscientific belief that empirical evidence can justify beliefs about racial superiority or inferiorityself-determination:a collective prerogative of peoples to govern themselves, protected under international law as a human right of all peoplessentience:the capacity to experience physical sensations such as pain and interpret this as an emotionSocial Darwinism:social theory in which natural selection is applied to human persons and groups, and understood as a “survival of the fittest” process through which nature rewards strength and punishes weaknesssoft power:interventions designed to persuade or shape preferences without coercionstare decisis doctrine:legal principle of deciding cases in accordance with precedent (the Latin means “to stand by things decided”)sufficiency:idea that users of a resource are entitled to enough of some resource, but not necessarily equal shares of it (related to distributive principle of sufficientarianism, which defines a just distribution in terms of this sufficient quantity)sustainable degrowth:social movement objective for equitable reductions of production and consumption in the global North, with eventual stabilization at sustainable levels (based on critique of growth as inequitable and unsustainable)technocracy:rule by an elite comprised of technical experts, insulated from democratic/political pressurestrophic diversity:biodiversity at the various levels of the food webvirtual water:amount of water used to produce some good such as a commodity crop, viewed as consumed when the crop is consumed
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International reactions to the revival of ecological limits were several and varied. Its influence on the development of international environmental law and governance can be seen in the role of such limits at the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment, which issued the Stockholm Declaration, calling for international cooperation on environmental protection. Persuaded by the reality and urgency of ecological limits, signatories to the Declaration pledged to cooperate in sustainably managing the planet’s natural resources and guarding against pollution threats, but also linked environmental protection to social and economic development and condemned South African apartheid and the history of colonialism as related to environmental inequality. In this sense, the conference revealed tensions between the global North and South over their inequitable prior exploitation of the global environment, with criticism aimed at the US for its ongoing war in Vietnam as well as its colonial history. It set the stage for later multilateral engagement around environmental equity issues, including the Brundtland Report’s vision for sustainable development (discussed in chapter 5) in 1987, and the two landmark conventions on biodiversity and climate change from the 1992 Earth Summit (discussed in chapter 9), both of which would also revive key international tensions and dynamics from this conference while embracing global equity among their guiding principles.
Delegates from the global South approached the issue of limits with skepticism – not about their scientific validity, but from a concern about limits on development being imposed on poor countries that might impede development opportunities that had been afforded to affluent countries. Since the developed North had benefitted from over a century of unconstrained exploitation of territorial resources, as well as those within the oceanic and atmospheric commons, representatives from the poor South objected to sustainability constraints that would curtail growth, and called for equitable burden-sharing in protecting the global environment (in what would later emerge as the “common but differentiated responsibilities” principle). Later, this tension would give rise to claims to a right to development: the idea that ecological limits should not prevent the least developed countries (or LDCs) from developing, and, in so doing, addressing their poverty, hunger, and economic insecurity. The idea of sustainable development would later come to name this attempt to balance sustainability and development imperatives in a manner consistent with their early expression in the Stockholm Declaration. As defined by the Brundtland Report, “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” requires sustainability in order to protect those future interests.
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