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Vincent T. Covello. Communicating in Risk, Crisis, and High Stress Situations: Evidence-Based Strategies and Practice
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Communicating in Risk, Crisis, and High Stress Situations. Evidence‐Based Strategies and Practice
A Note from the Series Editor
Acknowledgments
Author Biography
1. The Critical Role of Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
1.1 Case Diary: A Collision of Facts and Perceptions
1.2 What Will Readers Find in This Book?
1.3 Why You Will Use This Book
1.4 The Need for This Book – Now
1.4.1 New Literature, New Research
1.4.2 Changes in the Communications Landscape
1.4.3 Changes in Journalism and the Perception of Facts
1.4.4 Changes in Laws, Regulations, and Societal Expectations
1.4.5 Changes in Concerns about Health, Safety, and the Environment
1.4.6 Changes in Levels of Trust
1.4.7 Changes in the Global Political Environment
1.4.8 The COVID‐19 Pandemic and the Changed Communication Landscape
2. Core Concepts. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
2.1 Case Diary: Recognizing Change as a High Concern Issue
2.2 Defining the Concept and Term Risk
2.3 Defining the Concept and Term Risk Communication
2.4 Risk Communication and Its Relationship to Risk Analysis
2.5 Defining the Concepts and Terms High Concern and High Concern Communication
2.6 Defining the Concept and Term Crisis
2.7 Defining the Concept and Term Crisis Communication
2.8 Chapter Resources
Endnotes
3. An Overview of Risk Communication. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
3.1 Case Diary: Complex Issues Destroy Homes
3.2 Challenges and Difficulties Faced in Communicating Risk Information
3.2.1 Characteristics and Limitations of Scientific and Technical Data about Risks
3.2.2 Characteristics and Limitations of Spokespersons in Communicating Information about Risks
3.2.2.1 Case Study: “Go Hard, Go Early”: Risk Communication Lessons from New Zealand’s Response to COVID‐19
3.2.3 Characteristics and Limitations of Risk Management Regulations and Standards
3.2.3.1 Debates and Disagreements
3.2.3.2 Limited Resources for Risk Assessment and Management
3.2.3.3 Underestimating the Difficulty of and Need for Risk Communication
3.2.3.4 Lack of Coordination and Collaboration
3.2.4 Characteristics and Limitations of Traditional Media Channels in Communicating Information about Risks
3.2.5 Characteristics and Limitations of Social Media Channels in Communicating Information about Risks
3.2.6 Characteristics and Limitations of People in their Ability to Evaluate and Interpret Risk Information
3.3 Changes in How the Brain Processes Information Under Conditions of High Stress
3.4 Risk Communication Theory
3.4.1 Trust Determination Theory
3.4.2 Negative Dominance Theory
3.4.3 Mental Noise Theory
3.4.4 Risk Perception Theory
3.5 Risk Communication Principles and Guidelines
3.5.1 Principle 1. Accept and Involve All Interested and Affected Persons as Legitimate Partners
Guidelines:
3.5.2 Principle 2. Plan Carefully and Evaluate Performance
Guidelines:
3.5.3 Principle 3. Listen to Your Audience
Guidelines:
3.5.4 Principle 4. Be Honest, Frank, and Open
Guidelines:
3.5.5 Principle 5. Coordinate and Collaborate with Other Credible Sources
Guidelines:
3.5.6 Principle 6. Meet the Needs of Traditional and Social Media
Guidelines:
3.5.7 Principle 7. Speak Clearly and with Compassion
Guidelines:
3.6 Key Takeaway Concepts and Conclusions from this Overview Chapter
3.7 Chapter Resources
Endnotes
4. Development of Risk Communication Theory and Practice. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
4.1 Case Diary: Origin Story
4.2 Introduction
4.2.1 Historical Phase 1: Presenting Risk Numbers
4.2.2 Historical Phase 2: Listening and Planning
4.2.3 Historical Phase 3: Stakeholder Engagement
4.2.4 Covello and Sandman’s Four Stages of Risk Communication
4.2.4.1 Stage 1: Ignore the Public
4.2.4.2 Stage 2: Explaining Risk Data Better
4.2.4.3 Stage 3: Stakeholder Engagement
4.2.4.4 Stage 4: Empowerment
4.3 Summary
4.4 Chapter Resources
Endnotes
5. Stakeholder Engagement and Empowerment. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
5.1 Case Diary: A Town Hall Public Meeting Goes Very Wrong
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Levels of Stakeholder Engagement
5.3.1 Types of Stakeholder Engagement
5.4 Benefits of Stakeholder Engagement
5.5 Limitations and Challenges of Stakeholder Engagement
5.6 Techniques and Approaches for Effective Stakeholder Engagement
5.7 Meetings with Stakeholders
5.7.1 Town Hall Meetings
5.7.2 Open House Meetings/Information Workshops
5.7.3 Tips for Meetings with Stakeholders
5.8 Chapter Resources
Endnotes
6. Communicating in a Crisis. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
6.1 Case Diary: The Challenge of Partnership in a Crisis
6.2 The Three Phases of a Crisis
6.3 Communication in the Precrisis Preparedness Phase
6.3.1 Precrisis Communication Activity: Identifying Potential Crises
6.3.2 Case Study: The 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
6.3.3 Precrisis Communication Activity: Identify Goals and Objectives
6.3.4 Precrisis Communication Activity: Develop a Crisis Communication Plan
6.3.5 Precrisis Communication Activity: Identify, Train, and Test Crisis Communication Spokespersons
6.3.6 Precrisis Communication Activity: Engaging Stakeholders
6.3.7 Precrisis Communication Activity: Identifying Stakeholders’ Questions and Concerns
6.3.8 Drafting Messages for Anticipated Stakeholder Questions and Concerns
6.3.9 Precrisis Communication Activity: Conducting Exercises to Test the Crisis Communication Plan
6.3.10 Precrisis Communication Activity: Incident Command System (ICS) and the Joint Information Center (JIC)
6.4 Communications in the Crisis Response Phase
6.4.1 Case Study: Lac‐Mégantic Rail Tragedy
6.4.2 Disaster and Emergency Warnings
6.4.2.1 Designing Effective Warnings
6.4.2.2 Steps in the Disaster and Emergency Warning Process
6.5 Communicating Effectively about Blame, Accountability, and Responsibility
6.6 Communicating an Apology
6.6.1 Case Study: Maple Leaf Foods and the Listeria Food Contamination Crisis
6.6.2 Case Study: Southwest Airlines Apology
6.7 Communications in the Postcrisis Recovery Phase
6.7.1 Case Study and Case Diary: New York City’s Communication Trials by Fire, from West Nile to 9/11
6.7.2 Case Study: Johnson & Johnson and the Tylenol Tampering Case
6.7.3 Case Study: Flint, Michigan and Contaminated Drinking Water
6.8 Chapter Resources
Endnotes
7. Foundational Principles: Perceptions, Biases, and Information Filters. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
7.1 Case Diary: “A” Is for “Apples”
7.2 Message Perception and Reception in High Concern Situations
7.3 Message Filter Theory: A Set of Principles Drawn from the Behavioral and Neuroscience Literature
7.4 Case Study: COVID‐19 and Risk Perception Factors
7.4.1 Social Amplification Filters
7.4.2 Mental Shortcut Filters
7.4.3 Knowledge and Belief Filters
7.4.4 Personality Filters
7.4.5 Negative Dominance/Loss Aversion Filters
7.5 Message Filters and the Brain
7.6 Message Filters, Perceptions, and Models of Human Behavior
7.7 Message Filters, Perceptions, and Persuasion
7.8 Message Filters, Perceptions, and Ethics
7.9 Message Filters and the Issue of Acceptable Risk
7.9.1 Factors in Determining Acceptable Risk
7.9.2 Strategies for Addressing Acceptable Risk
7.10 The Message is in the Mind of the Receiver
7.11 Chapter Resources
Endnotes
8. Foundational Principles: Trust, Culture, and Worldviews
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
8.1 Case Diary: A Disease Outbreak in Africa
8.2 Trust Determination
8.3 Characteristics and Attributes of Trust
8.3.1 Trust and First Impressions
8.3.2 Loss of Trust
8.3.3 Gaining Trust
8.3.3.1 Gaining Trust through Stakeholder Engagement
8.3.3.2 Gaining Trust through Trust Transference
8.3.3.3 Gaining Trust through Actions and Behavior
8.4 Case Study: Trust and the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident
8.5 Case Diary: The Fukushima Japan Nuclear Power Plant Accident27
8.6 Gaining Trust in High‐Stakes Negotiations
8.7 Case Diary: Gaining Trust and the SARS Outbreak in Hong Kong
8.8 Trust and Culture
8.9 Cultural Competency
8.9.1 Different Communication Styles
8.9.2 Different Attitudes and Approaches toward Conflict
8.9.3 Different Nonverbal Communication
8.9.4 Different Attitudes and Approaches to Decision Making
8.9.5 Different Attitudes and Approaches toward Information Disclosure
8.9.6 Different Attitudes and Approaches to Knowing
8.9.7 Different Attitudes and Approaches toward Conversation and Discourse
8.9.8 Different Attitudes and Approaches toward the Use of Humor
8.10 Risk Perceptions, Trust, and Cultural Theory
8.11 Risk Perceptions, Trust, and Worldviews
8.12 Case Diary: Fame, Family, and Fear in Public Health Communications
8.13 Chapter Resources
Endnotes
9. Best Practices for Message Development in High Concern Situations. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
9.1 Case Diary: Mapping Through a Maze of COVID Confusion
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Crafting Messages in the Context of Stress and High Concern Decision‐Making
9.3.1 Trust Determination and Messaging in High‐Stress Situations
9.3.1.1 The CCO Best Practice
9.3.2 Impaired Comprehension and Messaging in High‐Stress Situations
9.3.3 Negative Dominance and Messaging in High‐Stress Situations
9.3.4 Emotional Impact and Messaging in High‐Stress Situations
9.3.4.1 Case Study: Hoarding Toilet Paper at the Outset of the 2020 COVID‐19 Pandemic
9.4 Message Mapping
9.4.1 Benefits of Message Maps
9.4.2 Message Maps and the Brain
9.4.3 The Development of Message Mapping
9.4.4 Case Study: Message Maps and Asbestos
9.4.5 Steps in Developing a Message Map
9.4.5.1 Step 1: Identify, Profile, and Prioritize Key Stakeholders
9.4.5.2 Step 2: Develop Lists of Stakeholder Questions and Concerns
9.4.5.3 Case Study: Stakeholder Questions, Terrorism, and Disasters
9.4.5.4 Step 3: Develop Key Messages
9.4.5.5 Step 4: Develop Supporting Information
9.4.5.6 Step 5: Testing the Message Map
9.4.5.7 Step 6: Repurpose Maps through Appropriate Information Channels
9.5 Summary
9.6 Chapter Resources
Appendices. Appendix 9.1 The 93 most frequently asked questions by journalists and the public following a major crisis, emergency, or disaster
Appendix 9.2 The 400 plus most frequently asked questions following an active shooter incident
Appendix 9.3 Change management: frequently asked questions
Appendix 9.4 The most frequently asked questions at environmental cleanups and hazardous waste sites
Endnotes
10. Communicating Numbers, Statistics, and Technical Information about a Risk or Threat. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
10.1 Case Diary: A Civil Action
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Case Study: Numbers, Statistics, and COVID‐19
10.4 Brain Processes That Filter How Technical Information about Risk or Threat Is Received and Understood
10.4.1 Risk and Threat Perception Filters
10.4.2 Thought Processing Filters
10.4.3 Mental Model Filters
10.4.4 Emotional Filters
10.4.5 Motivational Filters
10.5 Challenges in Explaining Technical Information About a Risk or Threat
10.6 Framing
10.7 Technical Jargon
10.8 Information Clarity
10.9 Units of Measurement
10.10 Case Study: Risk Numbers, Risk Statistics, and the Challenger Accident
10.11 Comparisons
10.12 Lessons Learned
10.13 Chapter Resources
Endnotes
11. Evaluating Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communications. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
11.1 Case Diary: Finding the Road to Rio
11.1.1 The Mosquito Front
11.1.2 The Citizen Front
11.1.3 The Olympic Athlete and Visitor Front
11.1.4 Communication Strategy: The Citizen Front
11.1.5 Communication Strategy: Olympic Athlete and Visitor Front
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Benefits of Evaluation
11.4 Evaluation Practices for Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication
11.5 Case Studies of Evaluation Comparison to Best Practice: Hurricane Katrina, COVID‐19 and Vaccination Hesitancy, and Outbreak of COVID‐19 in Wuhan, China. 11.5.1 Hurricane Katrina
11.5.2 COVID‐19 and Vaccination Hesitancy
11.5.3 Outbreak of COVID‐19 in Wuhan, China
11.6 Barriers and Challenges to Evaluation
11.6.1 Differences in Values
11.6.2 Differences in Goals
11.6.3 Competition for Resources
11.6.4 Ability to Learn from Results
11.7 Evaluation Measures
11.7.1 Process/Implementation Evaluation Measures
11.7.2 Outcome/Impact Evaluation Measures
11.7.3 Formative Evaluation Measures
11.8 An Integrated Approach to Evaluation
11.9 Resource: Case Study of Focus Group Testing of Mosquito‐Control Messages, Florida, 2018–201936
Evaluation Results
11.10 Evaluation Tools
11.11 Chapter Resources
Endnotes
12. Communicating with Mainstream News Media. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
12.1 Case Diary: A High Stakes Chess Game with a News Media Outlet
12.2 Introduction
12.3 Characteristics of the Mainstream News Media
12.3.1 Content
12.3.2 Clarity
12.3.3 Avoiding Prejudice
12.3.4 Topicality
12.3.5 Diversity
12.3.6 Subject Matter Expertise
12.3.7 Resources
12.3.8 Career Advancement
12.3.9 Watchdogs
12.3.10 Amplifiers
12.3.11 Skepticism
12.3.12 Source Dependency
12.3.13 Professionalism and Independence
12.3.14 Covering Uncertainty
12.3.15 Legal Constraints
12.3.16 Special Populations
12.3.17 Competition
12.3.18 Confidentiality and Protection of Sources
12.3.19 Deadlines
12.3.20 Trust
12.3.21 Storytelling
12.3.22 Balance and Controversy
12.4 Guidelines and Best Practices for Interacting with Mainstream News Media
12.5 The Media Interview
12.6 Lessons and Trends
12.7 Case Diary: A Ten‐Round Exercise
12.8 Chapter Resources
Endnotes
13. Social Media and the Changing Landscape for Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
13.1 Case Diary: Myth‐Busting: Mission Impossible?
13.2 Introduction
13.3 Benefits of Social Media Outlets for Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication
13.3.1 Speed
13.3.2 Access
13.3.3 Reach
13.3.4 Amplification
13.3.5 Transparency
13.3.6 Understanding
13.3.7 Changes in Behaviors
13.3.8 Relationship Building
13.3.9 Timeliness
13.3.10 Hyperlocal Specificity
13.3.11 Listening and Feedback
13.3.12 Taking Advantage of the Benefits of Social Media
13.4 Challenges of Social Media for Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication
13.4.1 Rising Expectations
13.4.2 Repostings/Redistribution
13.4.3 Permanent Storage
13.4.4 Hacking/Security
13.4.5 Rise and Fall of Social Media Platforms
13.4.6 Resources
13.4.7 Privacy and Confidentiality
13.4.8 Cognitive Overload
13.4.9 Players on the Field
13.4.10 Misinformation, Disinformation, and Rumors
13.5 Case Study: Social Media and the 2007 and 2011 Shooter Incidents at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech)
13.6 Case Study: Social Media and the 2013 Southern Alberta/Calgary Flood
13.7 Best Practices for Using Social Media in Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Situations
13.7.1 Create a Social Media Plan
13.7.2 Staff Appropriately for Social Media Communication
13.7.3 Ensure Continuous Updating
13.7.4 Identify Your Partners
13.7.5 Assess and Reassess Your Selection of Platforms
13.7.6 Create and Maintain as Many Social Media Accounts as You and Your Stakeholders Need
13.7.7 Be Prepared for the Special Social Media Requirements and Pressures in a Crisis
13.7.8 Provide Guidance for Employees and Engage Them in the Process
13.7.9 Don’t Skip Evaluation
13.8 Case Diary: Social Media and the Negative Power of“Junk”Information about Risks and Threats
13.9 Lessons Learned and Trends
13.10 Chapter Resources
Endnotes
Index. a
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