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1  1 Pew Charitable Trusts and SYSTEMIQ, Breaking the Plastic Wave: A Comprehensive Assessment of Pathways Towards Stopping Ocean Pollution (2020).

2  2 Estimates vary depending on different sources. See: Laura Parker, ‘Fast Facts About Plastic Pollution’, National Geographic, 20 December 2018, at https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/plastics-facts-infographics-ocean-pollution.

3  3 International Energy Agency, The Future of Petrochemicals (2018), at https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-petrochemicals.

4  4 Andrew Inkpen and Kannan Ramaswamy, ‘Breaking Up Global Value Chains: Evidence from the Oil and Gas Industry’, Advances in International Management, 30 (2017): 55–80.

5  5 Mark Eramo, ‘Global Chemical Industry Outlook: Assessing Today’s Strong Markets and Preparing for the 2020s’, IHS Markit, 3 August 2018, at https://ihsmarkit.com/research-analysis/global-chemical-industry-outlook-2020.html.

6  6 Divy Malik, Parth Manchanda, Theo Jan Simons, and Jeremy Wallach, ‘The Impact of COVID-19 on the Global Petrochemical Industry’, McKinsey, 28 October 2020, at https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/chemicals/our-insights/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-the-global-petrochemical-industry.

7  7 Zhou Peng, Theo Jan Simons, Jeremy Wallach, and Adam Youngman, ‘Petrochemicals 2020: A Year of Resilience and the Road to Recovery’, McKinsey, 21 May 2021, at https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/chemicals/our-insights/petrochemicals-2020-a-year-of-resilience-and-the-road-to-recovery.

8  8 Author’s field notes, virtual World Petrochemical Conference, 8–12 March 2021.

9  9 Parker, ‘Fast Facts About Plastic Pollution’.

10 10 Plastic Soup Foundation, Facts & Figures, at https://www.plasticsoupfoundation.org/en/plastic-facts-and-figures; Sarah Zhang, ‘Half of All Plastic Was Made in the Past 13 Years’, The Atlantic, 19 July 2017, at https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/07/plastic-age/533955.

11 11 See Ian Tiseo, ‘Cumulative Plastic Production Volume Worldwide from 1950 to 2050’, Statista, 27 January 2021, at https://www.statista.com/statistics/1019758/plastics-production-volume-worldwide; Ellen MacArthur Foundation, with the support of the World Economic Forum, The New Plastics Economy: Rethinking the Future of Plastics & Catalysing Action (2017), at https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/publications/the-new-plastics-economy-rethinking-the-future-of-plastics-catalysing-action.

12 12 Lisa A. Hamilton, Steven Feit, Carroll Muffett, et al., Plastic and Climate: The Hidden Costs of a Plastic Planet (Center for International Environmental Law, 2019). Other estimates put this figure at 98%: see Dominic Charles, Laurent Kimman, and Nakul Saran, The Plastic Waste Makers Index (Minderoo Foundation, 2021), at https://www.minderoo.org/plastic-waste-makers-index/findings/executive-summary/.

13 13 Other petrochemical products include pesticides, adhesives, synthetic textiles, rubbers, dyes, fertilizers, and synthetic paints and coatings. Eren Cetinkaya, Nathan Liu, Theo Jan Simons, and Jeremy Wallach, ‘Petrochemicals 2030: Reinventing the Way to Win in a Changing Industry’, Chemicals: Our Insights, 21 February 2018, at https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/chemicals/our-insights/petrochemicals-2030-reinventing-the-way-to-win-in-a-changing-industry.

14 14 Charles et al., The Plastic Waste Makers Index.

15 15 David Azoulay, Priscilla Villa, Yvette Arellano, et al., Plastic and Health: The Hidden Cost of a Plastic Planet (Center for International Environmental Law, 2019).

16 16 Pierpaolo Mudu, Benedetto Terracini, and Marco Martuzzi, Human Health in Areas with Industrial Contamination (WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2014).

17 17 See Sara M. Wiebe, Everyday Exposure: Indigenous Mobilization and Environmental Justice in Canada’s Chemical Valley (UBC Press, 2016); Beverly Wright, ‘Race, Politics and Pollution: Environmental Justice in the Mississippi River Chemical Corridor’, in Just Sustainabilities: Development in an Unequal World, eds Julian Agyeman, Robert D. Bullard, and Bob Evans (MIT Press, 2003), pp. 125–45.

18 18 Elisabeth Mendenhall, ‘Oceans of Plastic: A Research Agenda to Propel Policy Development’, Marine Policy, 96 (2018): 291–8.

19 19 Karen McVeigh, ‘Coca-Cola, Pepsi and Nestlé Named Top Plastic Polluters for Third Year in a Row’, Guardian, 7 December 2020, at https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/dec/07/coca-cola-pepsi-and-nestle-named-top-plastic-polluters-for-third-year-in-a-row.

20 20 Charles et al., The Plastic Waste Makers Index.

21 21 Anja Krieger, ‘Nobody Knows How Much Plastic and Fish Will Swim in the Ocean by 2050’, 20 March 2019, at https://www.riffreporter.de/de/umwelt/faktencheck-plastik-fisch; Leo Hornak, ‘Will There Be More Fish or Plastic in the Sea in 2050?’ BBC News Magazine, 15 February 2016, at https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-35562253.

22 22 See chapter 2.

23 23 See chapter 4.

24 24 Prachi Patel, ‘Stemming the Plastic Tide: 10 Rivers Contribute Most of the Plastic in the Oceans’, Scientific American, 1 February 2018, at https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/stemming-the-plastic-tide-10-rivers-contribute-most-of-the-plastic-in-the-oceans. The ten rivers finding was overturned by another study in 2021, which showed that 1,000 small and medium-sized rivers, rather than large rivers, accounted for 80% of the plastic waste flowing into oceans, all from five countries in Asia, but the basic point about geography remained. See Lourens J. J. Meijer, Tim van Emmerik, Ruud van der Ent, Christian Schmidt, and Laurent Lebreton, ‘More than 1000 Rivers Account for 80% of Global Riverine Plastic Emissions into the Ocean’, Science Advances, 7(18), 30 April 2021, at https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/7/18/eaaz5803.

25 25 Alliance to End Plastic Waste, ‘Launching the Alliance to End Plastic Waste’, London, 16 January 2019, at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MOfF6SUT0nY.

26 26 Kate O’Neill, ‘Can the World Win the War on Plastic?’ World Politics Review, 10 March 2020, at https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/28590/having-polluted-the-oceans-plastics-are-now-facing-a-popular-backlash.

27 27 Aarushi Jain, ‘Trash Trade Wars: Southeast Asia’s Problem with the World’s Waste’, Council on Foreign Relations 100, 8 May 2020, at https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/trash-trade-wars-southeast-asias-problem-worlds-waste; Yen Nee Lee, ‘Malaysia, Following in China’s Footsteps, Bans Plastic Waste Imports’, CNBC, 25 January 2019, at https://www.cnbc.com/2019/01/25/climate-change-malaysia-following-china-bans-plastic-waste-imports.html.

28 28 The concept of ‘waste colonialism’ will be discussed in further detail in the next chapter. See also David Naguib Pellow, Resisting Global Toxics: Transnational Movements for Environmental Justice (MIT Press, 2007); Max Liboiron, ‘Waste Colonialism’, Discard Studies, 1 November 2018, at https://discardstudies.com/2018/11/01/waste-colonialism/.

29 29 Lucy Siegle, Turning the Tide on Plastic: How Humanity (And You) Can Make Our Globe Clean Again (Orion Publishing, 2018); Will McCallum, How to Give Up Plastic: A Guide to Changing the World, One Plastic Bottle at a Time (Penguin, 2018); Martin Dorey, No. More. Plastic.: What You Can Do to Make a Difference – the #2minutesolution (Penguin, 2018); The F Team, F**k Plastic: 101 Ways to Free Yourself from Plastic and Save the World (Seven Dials, 2018).

30 30 Alice Delemare Tangpuori, George Harding-Rolls, Nusa Urbancic, and Ximena Purita Banegas Zallio, Talking Trash: The Corporate Playbook of False Solutions to the Plastics Crisis (Changing Markets Foundation, 2021); Greenpeace, Throwing Away the Future: How Companies Still Have It Wrong on Plastic Pollution ‘Solutions’, 30 September 2019, at https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/research/how-companies-still-have-it-wrong-on-plastic-pollution-solutions; Break Free From Plastic, ‘Missing the Mark: Unveiling Corporate False Solutions to the Plastic Pollution Crisis’, 21 June 2021, at https://www.breakfreefromplastic.org/missing-the-mark-unveiling-corporate-false-solutions-to-the-plastic-crisis/.

31 31 Author’s field notes, petrochemical markets workshop, London, 25–7 September 2018.

32 32 Jeffrey Meikle, American Plastic (Rutgers University Press, 1995), p. 3.

33 33 Lloyd Stouffer, ‘Plastics Packaging: Today and Tomorrow’, Report presented to the National Plastics Conference, The Society of the Plastics Industry, 1963.

34 34 Roland Barthes, Mythologies, trans. Annette Lavers (Hill and Wang, 1972), p. 111.

35 35 The plastics executive is quoted in Susan Freinkel, Plastic: A Toxic Love Story (Dreamscape Media, 2011), p. 6.

36 36 Plastics Europe, Plastics – the Facts 2020: An Analysis of European Plastics Production, Demand and Waste Data, accessed online on 27 April 2021 but no longer available.

37 37 See Freinkel, Plastic; Siegle, Turning the Tide on Plastic.

38 38 Rebecca Altman, ‘The Myth of Historical Bio-based Plastics’, Science, 373 (2021): 47–9 (p. 48).

39 39 Altman, ‘The Myth of Historical Bio-based Plastics’; see also John Tully, The Devil’s Milk: A Social History of Rubber (NYU Press, 2011).

40 40 Paul David Blanc, Fake Silk: The Lethal History of Viscose Rayon (Yale University Press, 2016), p. ix.

41 41 Author’s field notes, petrochemical markets workshop, London, 25–7 September 2018.

42 42 Alfred D. Chandler, Shaping the Industrial Century: The Remarkable Story of the Modern Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industries (Harvard University Press, 2005); Michael Reubold, Sean Milmo, and Martin Todd, Petrochemicals and EPCA: A Passionate Journey (European Petrochemical Association, 2016).

43 43 For the role of the Second World War in shaping the petrochemical and plastics industry, see Chandler, Shaping the Industrial Century; Freinkel, Plastic; and Gerald E. Markowitz and David Rosner, Deceit and Denial: The Deadly Politics of Industrial Pollution (University of California Press, 2002).

44 44 Rebecca Altman, ‘Time-Bombing the Future’, Aeon, 2 January 2019, at https://aeon.co/essays/how-20th-century-synthetics-altered-the-very-fabric-of-us-all; see also Freinkel, Plastic, p. 25.

45 45 Markowitz and Rosner, Deceit and Denial, p. 140.

46 46 Florian Jessberger, ‘On the Origins of Individual Criminal Responsibility under International Law for Business Activity: IG Farben on Trial’, Journal of International Criminal Justice, 8 (2010): 783–802. See also Werner Abelshauser, Wolfgang von Hippel, Jeffrey Allan Johnson, and Raymond G. Stokes, German Industry and Global Enterprise: BASF: The History of a Company (Cambridge University Press, 2003); Diarmuid Jeffreys, Hell’s Cartel: IG Farben and the Making of Hitler’s War Machine (Macmillan, 2008).

47 47 Jeffreys, Hell’s Cartel, p. 232.

48 48 Jessberger, ‘On the Origins of Individual Criminal Responsibility’.

49 49 Hubert Buch-Hansen and Lasse Folke Henriksen, ‘Toxic Ties: Corporate Networks of Market Control in the European Chemical Industry, 1960–2000’, Social Networks, 58 (2019): 24–36; see also Chandler, Shaping the Industrial Century.

50 50 Plastics Europe Deutschland e.V. and Fachgruppe Makromolekulare Chemie in der Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker e.V. (GDCh), ‘100 Years of Plastic: Unlimited Possibilities for the Future’, at http://www.100yearsofplastics.com.

51 51 Plastics Europe Deutschland e.V. and Fachgruppe Makromolekulare Chemie in der Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker e.V. (GDCh), ‘Plastics During the Pandemic’, at https://www.100jahrekunststoffe.de/en/2020/12/plastics-during-the-pandemic.

52 52 Samantha Maldonado and Marie J. French, ‘Plastics Industry Goes After Bag Bans During Pandemic’, Politico, 24 April 2020, at https://www.politico.com/states/new-jersey/story/2020/03/24/plastics-industry-goes-after-bag-bans-during-pandemic-1268843. See the discussion in chapter 5.

53 53 Michelle Meagher, Competition Is Killing Us: How Big Business Is Harming Our Society and Planet – and What to Do About It (Penguin 2020), p. 111.

54 54 Meagher, Competition Is Killing Us, p. 95.

55 55 Business Roundtable, ‘Business Roundtable Redefines the Purpose of a Corporation to Promote “an Economy That Serves All Americans”’, 19 August 2019, at https://www.businessroundtable.org/business-roundtable-redefines-the-purpose-of-a-corporation-to-promote-an-economy-that-serves-all-americans.

56 56 Joel Bakan, The New Corporation: How ‘Good’ Corporations Are Bad for Democracy (Vintage Books, 2020), pp. 29, 33. Reflecting on how the corporation has changed since he wrote the bestselling book The Corporation in 2003, Bakan argues that ‘despite all the posturing, the corporation’s character remains fundamentally the same. … It’s still a psychopath – just a more charming one now’ (pp. 57–8).

57 57 Peter Dauvergne, Will Big Business Destroy Our Planet? (Polity, 2018). Several other social scientists have written about the business of corporate environmental responsibility and private-led sustainability initiatives. For example, see Stefano Ponte, Business, Power and Sustainability in a World of Global Value Chains (Zed Books, 2019); David L. Levy and Peter Newell, The Business of Global Environmental Governance (MIT Press, 2005).

58 58 Tangpuori et al., Talking Trash; Greenpeace, Throwing Away the Future.

59 59 Tangpuori et al., Talking Trash.

60 60 Diana Barrowclough and Carolyn Deere Birkbeck, Transforming the Global Plastics Economy: The Political Economy and Governance of Plastics Production and Pollution (GEG Working Paper No. 142, 2020), at https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/224117; Charles et al., The Plastic Waste Makers Index.

61 61 Chandler, Shaping the Industrial Century.

62 62 Plastics Europe, Plastics – the Facts 2020; Plastics Industry Association, Size and Impact Report 2020, at https://www.plasticsindustry.org/sizeandimpact.

63 63 Chandler, Shaping the Industrial Century.

64 64 Chemical and Engineering News, Global Top 50 for 2020, https://cen.acs.org/business/finance/CENs-Global-Top-50-2020/98/i29.

65 65 Charles et al., Plastic Waste Makers Index, p. 13.

66 66 GlobalData, ‘China to Contribute 28% of Global Petrochemical Capacity Additions by 2030’, 30 October 2020, at https://www.globaldata.com/china-contribute-28-global-petrochemical-capacity-additions-2030-says-globaldata.

67 67 International Energy Agency, The Future of Petrochemicals.

68 68 Sandra Eckert, ‘Varieties of Framing the Circular Economy and the Bioeconomy: Unpacking Business Interests in European Policymaking’, Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 23(2) (2021): 181–93.

69 69 Barrowclough and Deere Birkbeck. Transforming the Global Plastics Economy, p. 31.

70 70 See chapter 3.

71 71 Linsey McGoey, The Unknowers: How Strategic Ignorance Rules the World (Zed Books, 2019); Hannah Jones, Violent Ignorance: Confronting Racism and Migration Control (Zed Books, 2020).

72 72 Robert D. Bullard, Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality (Routledge, 2018); Brendan Coolsaet, ed., Environmental Justice: Key Issues (Routledge, 2020).

73 73 Bakan, The New Corporation, p. 34.

74 74 Mariana Mazzucato, The Value of Everything: Making and Taking in the Global Economy (Hachette UK, 2018), p. 271.

75 75 See Alex Serpo, ‘Don’t Let this Recycling Crisis Go to Waste’, Waste Review, 3 April 2018, at https://wastemanagementreview.com.au/five-programs-nwric/; Guillaume Gruère, ‘Never Let a Good Water Crisis Go to Waste’, OECD, 21 March 2019, at https://www.oecd.org/agriculture/never-waste-a-good-water-crisis.

76 76 Rahm Emanuel, ‘Opinion: Let’s Make Sure This Crisis Doesn’t Go to Waste’, Washington Post, 25 March 2020, at https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2020/03/25/lets-make-sure-this-crisis-doesnt-go-waste.

77 77 Bernard Looney, Keynote Address, IP Week, 22 February 2020, at https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/news-and-insights/speeches/bernard-looney-keynote-address-ip-week.pdf.

78 78 Philip Mirowski, Never Let a Serious Crisis Go to Waste: How Neoliberalism Survived the Financial Meltdown (Verso, 2013).

79 79 Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (Macmillan, 2007).

80 80 Joseph Masco, ‘The Crisis in Crisis’, Current Anthropology, 58(S15) (2017): S65–76 (p. S65).

81 81 Max Liboiron, Pollution Is Colonialism (Duke University Press, 2021), p. 12.

82 82 Matt Hern and Am Johal, Global Warming and the Sweetness of Life: A Tar Sands Tale (MIT Press, 2019), p. 23.

83 83 Oliver Smith and Avi Brisman. ‘Plastic Waste and the Environmental Crisis Industry’, Critical Criminology, 29 (2021): 289–309 (p. 289).

84 84 Damian Carrington, ‘Why the Guardian Is Changing the Language It Uses About the Environment’, Guardian, 17 May 2019, at https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/17/why-the-guardian-is-changing-the-language-it-uses-about-the-environment.

85 85 Michelle Langrand, ‘A New Global Treaty to Tackle Plastic Pollution?’ Geneva Solutions, 1 March 2021, at https://genevasolutions.news/sustainable-business-finance/a-new-global-treaty-to-tackle-plastic-pollution.

86 86 Publicly available materials include corporate documents, speeches, magazines, blogs, websites, interviews, videos, media and NGO reports, and secondary sources. The observations at industry events and related interviews with corporate representatives were conducted between 2016 and 2021 as part of two research projects on environmental justice and the petrochemical industry, funded by the European Research Council (grant no. 639583) and the Leverhulme Trust (Philip Leverhulme Prize). All interviews were conducted with prior and informed consent, and names of interviewees have been anonymized. Observations from events anonymize corporate statements, unless (as many are) these are also publicly available in corporate conference reports, in magazines, and on websites.