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Based on the user queries, the refinement is done using three functions: these are shown in Table 2.2.

1 Modification of the user query

2 Expansion

3 Deletion

Modification: user modifies the last term of the query [12]:

{wi1, …wim} → {wi1, …w′im}, e.g., “single ladies song”→“single ladies lyrics”.

The formation is done based the document frequencies and their proximities.

Expansion: user adds one term to the end of the query:

{wi1, …wim} → {wi1, …wim, wi(m+1)}, e.g., “sports illustrated” → “sports illustrated 2010”.

Table 2.2 Three types of user refinement of queries.

Type	User activity	Pattern
Modification	1. q:{single ladies song}2. q:{single ladies lyrics} 3. URL click	Song → lyrics
Expansion	1. q:{sports illustrated}2. q:{sports illustrated 2010}3. URL click	ɛ → 2010
Deletion	1. q:{ebay auction}2. q:{ebay} 3. URL click	auction → ɛ

Deletion: user removes the last term of the query:

{wi1, …wi(m−1), wim} → {wi1, …wi(m−1)}, e.g., “ebay auction” → “ebay”.

These keyword query refinements help the user to get the appropriate results of the user search.