Читать книгу Counseling the Culturally Diverse - Laura Smith L. - Страница 80

Preference for personal space can also differ according to culture. Research on these preferences, called proxemics, indicates that conversational distances vary with the racial and cultural backgrounds of the conversants (Mindess, 1999; Susman & Rosenfeld, 1982; Wolfgang, 1985). The factor of personal space has major implications for how furniture is arranged, where seats are located, and where and how far apart therapists and clients sit. Many European Americans, for example, like to keep a desk between themselves and others, which is not a seating arrangement that necessarily invites people to speak openly. Whereas proxemics refers to personal space, kinesics is the term used to refer to bodily movements. It includes such things as facial expression, posture, characteristics of movement, gestures, and eye contact. Again, kinesics appears to be culturally conditioned. Many of our counseling assessments are based upon expressions on people's faces. We assume that facial cues express emotions and demonstrate the degree of responsiveness or involvement of the individual. For example, smiling is a type of expression in our society that is believed to indicate liking or positive affect. People attribute greater positive characteristics to others who smile; they see them as individuals who are intelligent, have a good personality, and are pleasant (Singelis, 1994).

On the other hand, some Asian people believe that smiling may suggest other meanings or even weakness. When Japanese smile and laugh, it does not necessarily indicate happiness but may convey embarrassment, discomfort, or shyness. Among some Chinese and Japanese, restraint of strong feelings (anger, irritation, sadness, and love or happiness) is considered to be a sign of maturity and wisdom. Children learn that outward emotional displays (facial expressions, body movements, and verbal content) are discouraged except in extreme situations. Unenlightened counselors may assume that their Asian American client is either lacking in feelings or is out of touch with them. Alternatively, the lack of facial expressions may be the basis of stereotypes, such as the idea that Asian people are “inscrutable,” “sneaky,” and “deceptive.”

A number of gestures and bodily movements have been found to have different meanings when the cultural context is considered (LaBarre, 1985). In the Sung Dynasty in China, sticking out the tongue was a gesture of mock terror and meant as ridicule; to the Ovimbundu of Africa, it means “You're a fool” (when coupled with bending the head forward); a protruding tongue in the Mayan statues of gods signifies wisdom; and in U.S. culture, it is generally considered to be a juvenile, quasi‐obscene gesture of defiance, mockery, or contempt. Head movements also have different meanings (Eakins & Eakins, 1985; Jensen, 1985). An educated Englishman may consider the lifting of the chin when conversing as a poised and polite gesture, but to European Americans it may connote snobbery and arrogance (“turning up one's nose”). Most European Americans perceive squatting (often done by children) as improper and childish. In other parts of the world, however, people have learned to rest by taking a squatting position. On the other hand, when Americans put our feet up on a desk, it is believed to signify a relaxed and informal attitude. Yet, Asians and Latinx Americans may perceive it as rudeness and arrogance, especially if the bottoms of the feet are shown to them.