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Greene was a feminist, deeply committed to universal reform, and wrote several children’s books on moral values and racial equality: Little Harry’s Wish, Or, Playing Soldier (1868); Little Angel, A Temperance Story for Children (1868), Little Susie; Or The New Year’s Gift (1873). In The Radical Spiritualist, together with her husband, she published antislavery texts with William Garrison’s radical abolitionist motto, “No Union with Slaveholders” in some of its issues. In August 1859, for example, she wrote a narrative titled “The Heroic Fugitive,” celebrating the bravery and humanity of a runaway woman slave in her community, and asking readers: “Who says that the slaves are satisfied with their condition? Who would be willing to change places with them? Would to heaven that those who apologize for this giant evil, were obliged to endure but for a single day, what the slave has endured for centuries. To every humane person, and to every Spiritualist especially, would we say, when this fugitive comes to your door, in the name of humanity, aid her by your words of kindness and deeds of love.” Her text was followed by Butts’s poem “The Angel and the Slaver.”

Ralph; or, I Wish He Wasn’t Black is an example of Greene’s commitment to the abolitionist agenda. As Linda Hixon explains, she must have been a participant of the Hopedale Sewing Circle, a group that mirrored the community confrontation with the system of slavery and, in contrast to many other sewing circles, was even “supportive of disunion to remove the country from the stain of slavery” (122). The cover of the story shows the figure of the kneeling slave with the traditional abolitionist religious caption of “Have we not all one Father?” The question is expanded at the end of the tale with a poem on the brotherhood of all persons. The narrative tells of two friends, a white boy called Ralph Medford and a black one called Tommy Willard, and expands on the absurdity of racial prejudices as well as the injustice of the Fugitive Slave Law, since Tommy’s father, a fugitive in the North, has been taken back to his owner in the South. As in previous abolitionist writings for children, mothers play a leading role in the moral indoctrination of their children. When Ralph feels threatened by the company of Tommy and his mother, Aunt Molly, in church, Mrs. Medford “felt that prejudice had already been sown in his young heart, and she knew how hard a thing it was to be rooted out, when it had once obtained root in the plastic soil of the soul.” Once more, the maternal influence is shown to be a decisive factor to educate children and impress upon their minds the divine legitimacy of interracial brotherhood. The author, however, takes advantage of Mrs. Willard’s concern as a domestic moral abolitionist to harangue against traditions and forms of Christian practice rooted in earlier Calvinistic theology that stood in contrast to those derived from the Second Great Awakening and the Evangelical revivals. Thus, Tommy “was not only taught book science, but was also taught goodness. His mother took every opportunity to impress upon his young and tender mind the truth and beauty of religion. Not that religion which clothes itself in gloom, and causes a sombre cloud to rest pall like, on the free, glad spirit. No, this was not the religion which Mrs. Medford possessed. Hers was a joyous piety, a piety which could see God in everything, in the little flower that bloomed so carelessly at her feet, in the song of birds in gentle, running brooks, in the starry heavens, all, all proclaimed to her the God of love. In the human soul, also, she saw the divine as well as the human; and no soul, however lost in guilt and folly, did she pass by. Her religion was a hopeful one, and she believed that God kindly cared for all, and would never forget a soul which He had formed. The dark Theology of the past with its blighting influence found no resting place in her benevolent soul; and while she saw God in everything that lived and moved, and dwelt with joy and sweet satisfaction upon all his beautiful works, she forgot not the meek and lowly Jesus. She felt that His life was a pattern, and she humbly tried to follow in his footsteps.” As an Evangelical Christian, Mrs. Medford’s maternal influence presses moral issues in the domestic space. She educates her son, a future citizen of the American republic, and instills in him concepts of human betterment and racial equality under God’s grace and love. As the narrator declares, “[t]hus did Mrs. Medford early impress on the plastic mind of her little boy, truths lofty and pure, simplified to his youthful comprehension.”

Horace C. Grosvenor’s THE CHILD’S BOOK ON SLAVERY, OR, SLAVERY MADE PLAIN appeared in 1857 under the auspices of The American Reform Tract and Book Society, a Cincinnati (Ohio) based abolitionist group that had been founded in 1852 by antislavery Congregationalists and Presbyterians, “to prevent slavery from possessing our new territories” (cit. Twaddell 130). The objectives of The American Reform Tract and Book Society can be read on the back cover of one of its pamphlets from 1856 (Slavery and Infidelity, or, Slavery in the Church Ensures Infidelity in the World by Rev. William W. Patton). The text reads as follows: “The American Reform Tract and Book Society, it is believed, is the offspring of necessity, brought into existence to fill a vacuum left unoccupied by most other Publishing Boards and Institutions—its object being to publish such Tracts and Books as are necessary to awaken a decided, though healthful, agitation on the great questions of Freedom and Slavery.” This is its primary object, though its constitution covers the broad ground of “promulgating the doctrines of the Reformation, to point out the application of the principles of Christianity to every known sin, and to show the sufficiency and adaptation of those principles to remove all the evils of the world and bring on a form of society in accordance with the Gospel of Christ.”

Grosvenor’s volume is a noteworthy abolitionist text that provides a thorough description of American slavery and analyzes it from historical, religious and legal perspectives. The first chapter, “The design,” presents the content of the volume: “The design of this little book is to show the truth in regard to Slavery, and to give important information concerning it to all readers who do not already know it well. It is intended to show what slavery is, what the principles of truth and justice require us to think of it, and what the Bible teaches in regard to it. Be patient to read and think, and it is hoped that the book will do you good. It is addressed to children and youth; but, like most books of much profit to them, it is thought that it will be useful to many older readers.” In contrast to the most reputed abolitionist writings for children, Grosvenor’s text does not appeal to the emotions of its readers but aims to convince them through reasonable and objective data on the system. It asks them not to feel but to judge scientific information. The volume is divided into 28 sections: “The design,” “Have you seen slavery?” “The number of slaves,” “The duty of learning about slavery,” “Does color make slavery?” “What is a slave?” “Slaves can not own any thing,” “The difference between a slave and a child,” “A slave is not a hired servant,” “A slave is not like an apprentice,” “Slavery is not merely cruelty,” “The laws of slavery,” “The law is the mind of the people,” “Are there any kind slaveholders?” “A case of so-called kind slaveholding,” “Slave law treating a boy as property,” “A slave-father trying to get away from slave law,” “How slavery looks,” “Why slaves are not allowed to read,” “A little school for the slave children,” “Slavery laws against education,” “Ought any body to obey a wicked law,” “Have the masters a right to their slaves?” “Shall we make men slaves to make them good?” “Does the Old Testament uphold slavery?” “Does the New Testament uphold Slavery?” “A look at Slavery from the death-bed,” and “Can we cease to do evil and learn to do well?” Section 12, “The laws of slavery,” for example, provides specific information and quotes from the South Carolina code: “Slaves shall be deemed, held, taken, reputed, and adjudged, in law, to be chattel personal, in the hands of their owners and possessors, and their executor, administrators and assigns, to all intents, constructions, and purposes, whatever.” It also quotes from the civil code of Louisiana: “A slave is one who is in the power of a master, to whom he belongs; the master may sell him, dispose of his person, his industry, and his labor; he can do nothing, possess nothing, nor acquire anything, but what must belong to his master.” Section 21, “Slavery Laws against Education” presents examples of punishments in the code for teaching a slave to read. Information is also provided as to the punishments for a slave preaching. The texts are accompanied by small woodcuts that exemplify the information, and the frontispiece includes an image titled “View of the Slave-Pen, Washington City, D.C.” As Meg Elizabeth Gudgeirsson writes (152), an example of the many volumes produced by the American Reform Tract and Book Society out of Cincinnati, The Child’s Book on Slavery, was one of the books used by antislavery educational institutions such as the outstanding Berea College in Kentucky and in Sabbath schools. As a pedagogical tool for antislavery indoctrination, the text builds on what Benjamin Lamb-Books calls “the Republican frame” of the abolitionist discourse, since it presents “slavery as a social problem because it goes against values of equal rights and liberty from tyrants, the principles, enshrined in the nation’s collective memory of revolution and independence” (96). However, as with other books published by religious associations, it also emphasized the humanity of the slaves and their similarity to the young readers. Using these texts, teachers show how slavery was defended in different areas of American society and the many ways children could help advance the antislavery cause.

As the United States was running inexorably toward the outbreak of a civil war, the abolitionists kept on publishing texts for children in their attempt to prepare them for a potential conflict. As Jonathan Shectman (28) writes, in 1859 “abolitionism had fundamentally emerged from its accustomed place on the radical periphery to become a furious moral force in American public life.” “SELLING BABIES” and “A MOTHER IN PRISON” (1859) by Matilda Hamilton Fee are two brief texts included in the “Children’s Department of The American Missionary Magazine (1846-1934), a publication of the American Missionary Association, an abolitionist society that continued to dedicate itself to “the Negro Problem” until the appearance of the Civil Rights Movement. Matilda Hamilton Fee married Reverend John Gregg Fee in 1844, and both of them devoted their lives to the antislavery cause. Reverend Fee (1816-1901) founded the town of Berea in Kentucky in 1855 with help from the American Missionary Association and a local antislavery politician and wealthy landowner, Cassius M. Clay. In 1858-59 he founded Berea College, both of them going on to become sites of abolitionist activities. Fee envisioned the school as a model of educational racial integration in the middle of Southern pro-slavery territory. “What made Berea unique was its radical abolitionism located in the South” (Gudgeirsson 40). Yet, his illusions were soon shattered when in December of 1859 a mob attacked the college. The Fees left the town but returned in 1864, when the school unsuccessfully initiated the path towards integration. Among other things, Matilda collaborated with a column for children in The American Missionary Magazine. The second collaboration in April 1859 tells the story of the runaway slave Juliet Miles, who is separated from her children, to enlist the little readers’ “sympathies in the great cause of human freedom.” In 1858, as Gudgeirsson notes (204), Fee had written about the foundation of The Children’s and Young Peoples’ Anti-Slavery Missionary Association, an initiative of Berea College. The Fees explained that children also had a call to participate in the glorious work of destroying slavery, and that the object of the Association was “the promotion of a general interest among the young in missionary Associations, on Christian and antislavery principles, and more particularly for the support and extension of our missions in Slave States and their borders.”

The Children’s Anti-Slavery Missionary Association provided a way for children to work to contribute to the cause. Berea community leaders often wrote about this in the American Missionary. In their article “Children’s Anti-Slavery Missionary Societies: To Parents, Ministers of the Gospel, Superintendents and Teachers of Sabbath Schools, and all Educators of Children and Youth” (American Missionary 2.1, January 1858, 13), George Whipple, S. S. Jocelyn and Lewis Tappen explained that “children must have their part in this glorious work, and if the enemy and the avenger are to be stilled, must bear the testimony to Christ, as they did in the temple on his triumphal entrance into Jerusalem… as children take pleasure in action, having some definite attractive object before them, we propose to the friends of pure religion and freedom, that they promote and secure, in their several localities, the formation of the Children’s Anti-Slavery Missionary Societies, the object of which shall be the promotion of a general interest among the young in missionary Associations, on Christian and antislavery principles, and more particularly for the support and extension of our missions in Slave States and their borders” (cit. Gudgeirsson 204). The members of the association would work to advance their cause and, as a token of recognition for their efforts, they would be granted a membership certificate. Fee referred to slavery as “the caste system” (Gudgeirsson 40) and described his college as an abolitionist school designed to foster abolitionism among their students from an early age. Their aims were to awaken children’s anger and opposition towards slavery and instill into them a sense of racial equality. They were convinced that white children educated to fight slavery and schooled with black children on equal terms would become future adults free of racial prejudices and full participants in a more democratic and free future.

The second volume appearing in the period running up to the Civil War was THE CHILD’S ANTI-SLAVERY BOOK, CONTAINING A FEW WORDS ABOUT AMERICAN SLAVE CHILDREN AND STORIES OF SLAVE-LIFE (1859), authored by Julia Colman and Mathilda G. Thompson. This is an illustrated book of children’s antislavery stories published by the New York firm Carlton & Porter of the Sunday School Union in 1859. It includes a short introduction, signed by “D.W.”, that is an address to American free children against the sin of slavery and their responsibility to take action against it. This preliminary text falls into one of the three modes of discourse that Benjamin Lamb-Books finds indispensable to abolitionist discourse, the Evangelical Protestant frame, as it constructs “slavery as a sin” that “should be repented from immediately” (96). Moreover, and to enhance the vividness and historical legitimacy of the tales that follow, readers are told that the “stories are pictures of actual life, and worthy of your belief.” The volume includes one story by Julia Colman (“Little Lewis: The Story of a Slave Boy”), two stories by Matilda G. Thompson (“Mark and Hasty; or, Slave-Life in Missouri”—based on real events in Saint Louis—and “Aunt Judy’s Story: A Story from Real Life”), and a short anonymous religious text—“Me Neber Gib it Up!”—about a slave being taught to read the Bible by a missionary in the West Indies. The book’s ten illustrations show slavery’s cruel oppression with scenes of family separation, a slave whipping, slave auctions, and hunting slaves with dogs. Except for the picture accompanying “Me Neber Gib it Up!,” the other nine illustrations were culled from Jewett’s Illustrated Edition of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin without any acknowledgment of their author, Hammatt Billings. On February 10, 1859, a review in National Era on The Child’s Anti-Slavery Book declared that its stories are “natural and well-fitted for their object,” and “told evidently by those who are not unacquainted with life as delineated.” Finally, it is hoped that the book, as another volume of “this class of Anti-Slavery literature,” “may exert a beneficial influence wherever it goes.”

According to Jonathan Shectman, “from its first sentence, this slender book all but trumpeted its intention to do for pedagogy what abolitionism was doing for morality: “Children, you are free and happy. […] But are all the children in America free like you? No, no! I am sorry to tell you that hundreds of thousands of American children are slaves.” Children are directly confronted with American antislavery politics when they are told, in reference to the Fugitive Slave Law, that “violence has been framed into law,” and that “I want you to remember one great truth regarding slavery, namely, that a slave is a human being, held and used as property by another human being, and that it is always A SIN AGAINST GOD to thus hold and use a human being as property!… God did not make man to be the property of man…. On the contrary, he made all men to be free and equal, as saith our Declaration of Independence. Hence, every negro child that is born is as free before God as the white child, having precisely the same right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, as the white child…. Children, I want you to shrink from this sin as the Jews did from the fiery serpents. Hate it. Loathe it as you would the leprosy. Make a solemn vow before the Savior, who loves the slave and slave children as truly as he does you, that you will never hold slaves, never apologize for those who do” (28).

“Little Lewis” tells the true story of a slave boy who is forbidden to learn to read, and how, after going to Sunday School without his master’s permission, is cruelly whipped. His mother, who had been sold away, returns home and tries to kill herself as she feels overwhelmed by her impotence to fight against her master’s power. Julia Colman provides an illustration of the injustices of slavery—the breakup of the black family; black women’s insanity and infanticide impulses for their being deprived of their rights as mothers. As happens with Little Lewis in the diagetic world of the narrative, Colman provides a didactic lesson for her readers on the realities of America so that, like her protagonist, they are addressed as adults, and become “almost a man in thought.” For Jonathan Shectman (29), the story accomplishes several objectives: “It enlightened its young readers about the stifling realities of slavery. It encouraged erudition to its white, middle-class core audience. And above all it shored up white, liberal society through the person of Little Lewis. For, at the end of the day, Little Lewis wants to be just exactly like his white brethren: educated, free, and free-thinking, albeit amongst individuals of his own skin color.”

Margaret G. Thompson’s “Mark and Hasty” tells about a family breakup because of the forced separation of the father, the death of the mother and the efforts of abolitionists to help them against the lawful power of their owners. Against contemporary depictions of blacks as unfeeling creatures, the story underlines the unquestionable ties of love that the members of this black family feel for each other. In the next story, “Aunt Judy”, Thompson describes the life of a free black woman who is cheated out of her freedom, and contrasts her suffering with the comfortable existence of white people.

“Me Neber Gib it Up!” tells the story of an old black man in the West Indies who wants to learn to write and asks a missionary to teach him. His life-long years in slavery hinder his efforts now as a freeman to learn as quickly as the teacher wishes, and the missionary advises him to give up his wishes to become literate. The man adamantly refuses “with the energy of a noble nature” and answers: “me neber gib it up till me die!” because “it is worth all de labor to be able to read” the words in the Bible that speak about how the believers in Christ were granted “everlasting life.” The narrator appeals to the readers hoping for the physical and spiritual freedom of “all colored people of our happy land.”

For Donnarae MacCann, these fictional narratives do not mirror “the same potency” displayed by “the antiprejudice content” appearing in the Introduction (9). Yet, Cynthia M. Rogers’s research throws light on the decisions that American religious congregations took on the issue of slavery. She observes that the appearance of The Child’s Anti-Slavery Book, Containing a Few Words About American Slave Children and Stories of Slave-Life (1859) was saluted in the South although the book’s abolitionist content deserved rejection: “On April 21, 1859, John B. McFerrin, editor of the Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, in Nashville, declared in the Nashville Christian Advocate that certain works published for the Methodist Episcopal Church would “never see the light” in Southern church libraries. “Instance, The Child’s Anti-Slavery Book, from the press a few weeks since—a work we regard as far worse than Uncle Tom’s Cabin … Such publications are rank with abolition sentiments, and cannot be sold by our agency” (4).

STEP BY STEP, OR TIDY’S WAY TO FREEDOM was published in 1862, the year in which Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. This is a juvenile religious novel by Mrs. Helen E. Brown, about a slave girl’s life on a plantation. We know the author was Brown, because the book appearing as “Tidy’s Way to Freedom” is listed under the name of “Mrs. H.E. Brown,” and its content summed up as “the story of a slave girl” in The Uniform Trade List Annual (1873, 20) and The American Catalog (1943, 700). In American Literary Gazette and Publishers’ Circular (Vol. 4, 1864, 11), she also appeared as the author of John Freeman and His Family (1864, 96 pages), another book belonging to a series entitled The Freedman’s Library, published by the American Tract Society in Boston. Mrs. Brown was a prolific writer of moral tales. In “Normalizing Subordination: White Fantasies of Black Identity in Textbooks Intended for Freed Slaves in the American South, 1863-1870,” Ronald E. Butchart (74-75) explains how northern writers catered for the need for specialized textbooks in freedmen’s schools. Among the readers he mentions Advice to Freedmen (1863) by Isaac W. Brinckerhoff, The Freedmen’s Book (1865) by Lydia Maria Child, Plain Counsels for Freedmen (1866) by Clinton B. Fisk, and Helen E. Brown’s (1864) John Freeman and His Family.

Step by Step, or Tidy’s Way to Freedom was published by the American Tract Society of Boston, and it contains eighteen chapters together with a short narrative titled “Old Dinah Johnson.” As explained by S.J. Wolfe, cataloger of the American Antiquarian Society, the American Tract Society (Boston, Mass.) originated in 1825 when the Boston-based American Tract Society merged with the New York Religious Tract Society, and maintained its autonomy. In 1859 “a major break occurred between the two American Tract Societies, due to a difference of opinion over the issue of whether or not to publish tracts which concerned ‘the sin of slavery.’ The American Tract Society continued to publish and distribute tracts under the name American Tract Society.”

The volume received attention and was soon included in all the important antislavery catalogs. The Boston Review. Devoted to Theology and Literature (Vol. III, 1863, 334) echoed its relevance when it included the title in the list appearing in 1862 with other books published by the American Tract Society of Boston: “Among the multitude of books upon the subject of Slavery which our recent troubles have drawn forth, these have won their way to the confidence of the public as authorities which will repay consultation, being careful in their inductions, philosophical in their methods, good in their temper, and hopeful in their auguries. Tidy’s Way to Freedom, together with titles such as Ministering Children by Maria Louisa Charlesworth, or Trust in God or Jenny’s Trials by Catherine Douglas Bell are a good addition to our Juvenile Christian literature. They are written in modern style, life-like, earnest, interesting and practical in their bearings toward a better life.”

“My story is not one of UNUSUAL interest,” writes the narrator in the Introduction, and continues to say that “[t]housands and ten of thousands equally affecting might be told, and many far more romantic and thrilling. What a day will that be, when the recorded history of every slave-life shall be read before an assembled universe! What a long catalogue of martyrs and heroes will then be revealed! What complicated tales of wrongs and woes! What crowns and palms of victory will then be awarded! What treasures of wrath heaped up against the day of wrath will then be poured in fiery indignation upon deserving heads! Truly, then, will come to pass the saying of the Lord Jesus, ‘The first shall be last and the last first.’” This prefatory chapter finishes with an invocation: “Then, too, will appear most gloriously the loving kindness and tender mercy of God, who loves to stoop to the poor and humble, and to care for those who are friendless and alone. It seems as if our Heavenly Father took special delight in revealing the truths of salvation to this untutored people, in a mysterious way leading them into gospel light and liberty; so that though men take pains to keep them in ignorance, multitudes of them give evidence of piety, and find consolation for their miseries in the sweet love of God. It is the dealings of God in guiding one of these to a knowledge of himself, that I wish to relate to you in the following chapters.”

The story of Tidy takes readers from the protagonist’s birth as a slave to the moment of her freedom and full embracement of the Christian faith in the chapter titled “Crowning Mercies.” The tale appeals to white child readers to make a comparison between their lives of comfort and ease with the cruelties suffered by Tidy in bondage. Hence, “[t]he reader is repeatedly invited to share in the national shame of having deprived Tidy of her childhood” (Hintz and Tribunella 66). The narrator closes the story with two instructive moral lessons. One is that “if God so loved a humble slave-child, and took such pains to bring her to himself, it is our privilege to feel the same sympathy and love for this poor despised race. And this love will draw us two ways: first, towards God, admiring and praising his infinite goodness and compassion; and, secondly, towards these prostrate, down-trodden people, to do all we can, in God’s name, and for his dear sake, for their elevation and instruction.” And the other is that “if God so loved this humble slave-child, he has the same love towards every one of you. Will you not yield yourselves to his control, and let his various loving-kindnesses draw you too to himself?” The tale broadens its message from a call for joining the antislavery ranks to an urgent appeal for religious conduct and an admonishment for proper social and moral life. White child readers are thus converted and shown the righteous path towards a Christian brotherhood.

THE GOSPEL OF SLAVERY: A PRIMER OF FREEDOM, a relevant antislavery primer by Iron Gray, was published in 1864, a year after Confederate troops were defeated at the Battle of Gettysburg. Iron Gray was the pseudonym used by Reverend Abel Charles Thomas (1807-1880), pastor of the Second Universalist Church and an active participant in the antislavery circles of Philadelphia.

He served a short pastorate in Lowell, Massachusetts, where in October 1840 he was one of the founders and editors of the Lowell Offering, a literary magazine written by “Factory girls” employed in the mills. Thomas helped and encouraged young women working in these textile mills who aspired to be writers. The Lowell Company produced cheap rough fabric, also known as “negro cloth” or “Lowell cloth,” that was sold to slave owners of the South. The members of the Second Universalist Church, organized around 1836, were mostly antislavery activists and in The Gospel Thomas condemns the industrial system of the North as the capitalist foundation stone of Southern slavery.

Thomas published a long list of works, some of them addressed to juvenile readers. The Gospel of Slavery: A Primer of Freedom, published by W.T. Strong of New York, at a time when the Thirteenth Amendment had just been passed by the Senate on April 8, 1864, and slavery and involuntary servitude had been abolished, differs radically from The Anti-Slavery Alphabet published in 1846. This primer is not addressed to little children, but to young adults with a far more thorough knowledge of American politics. Thomas accompanies each letter of the alphabet with a striking illustration, a fairly long poem, and an explanatory footnote. The Gospel of Slavery adds to the number of antislavery primers published during the prewar years. Each letter corresponds to a lesson and presents a key word related to the slavery system, which is illustrated by a graphic woodcut image and accompanied by a verse text that responds to arguments sustained by the defenders of the institution. Below the poetic description there are some lines of prose that offer a factual explanation of the argument exposed above and give further food for thought on those principles. The first lesson on the letter A, for example, points out the religious condemnation of slavery. Adam, as the unquestionable biblical father of humanity, highlights the equality of all people in the eyes of an all-seeing God. Savannah Teekel and Daniel Joiner explain that in this image “we see a representation of equality through the children’s differences. There is an all seeing eye of the Lord watching over them, or it may represent a symbol of knowledge which destroys the ignorance that enforces the evil of slavery. This eye is looking over two boys on a seesaw who are seemingly equal individuals in this picture. The noticeable differences in the images are in the boys’ skin colors and the buildings behind them, which may represent their class levels. The balanced position of the seesaw and the centered eye located vertically above the fulcrum of the toy portray equality of the boys with no regard to race or social class. In fact, because the all seeing eye is the all seeing eye of the Lord, and the illustration does not appear to acknowledge race and class, the reader is led to infer that the Lord doesn’t see race and class as important.” Thomas refers the reader to the Declaration of Independence and points out how inequality contradicts the founding principles of the nation. As with previous abolitionist writers for children, Thomas does not dodge the horrors of the peculiar institution and illustrates the letter B with the word “bloodhound” and its aggressive illustration of a dog attacking a runaway slave. All the letters in the alphabet are found to hide dark meanings for the enslaved. These possibilities break through the seemingly optimistic future of a Northern victory in the war and hold children to a past of injustice that belies the democratic principles of America as a nation of equality and fraternity.

As in the illustrations appearing in The Slave’s Friend, the images in The Gospel of Slavery are “representative of literally thousands of other cuts and prints brought out in Boston and New York in the 1850s,” and they “almost universally present disempowered images of the slave” (Wood 97). Marcus Wood explains how these images were culled from the visual antislavery archive, representing what he calls “an iconography of passivity and dependency” (99). These images awaken the reader to feel “aggression towards the aggressor and sorrow for the suffering. The black slave is a figure to be protected, not admired” (Wood 97).

At a time of rejoicing over the barely won emancipation, Thomas confronted a reality of the recent past with ruthless honesty. Each letter was brought to represent the plight of the slaves socially, economically, sexually and politically. Moreover, he celebrated resistance of slaves—of both slave women and men—and their efforts to confront the injustices suffered at the hands of slaveholders, overseers, and common Americans.

The texts included in this anthology illustrate the wide range of possibilities that abolitionist writings offered to American children during the first half of the nineteenth century. Composing their works under the wings of the antislavery movement, authors responded to the unequal and controversial development of abolitionist politics during the decades that led up to the outbreak of the Civil War. These writers struggled to teach children “to feel right,” and attempted to instruct them to actively respond to the injustice of the slavery system as rendered visible by a harrowing visual archive of suffering bodies compiled by both English and American antislavery promoters. These writings for children went against the tenants of traditional nineteenth-century children’s literature but they also enclose many good religious and political reasons for being banned in contemporary times since they graphically illustrate the abominations of American slavery, and provide controversial visual evidence of a reality otherwise hidden and deemed obscene. Poetry and fiction bear witness to slavery’s wrongs and question the comfortable teachings of mainstream nineteenth-century education. Abolitionist authors of works for children turned slavery’s everyday realities into a dark replica of Victorian escapist fantastic and fairy tales. In contrast to the eagerness shown by nineteenth-century culture towards the protection and enshrining of children as innocent and angelic creatures, abolitionist writings shatter the crystal domes that kept them isolated from the world and made them face the bleak realities of their own country and actively share the righteous anger that dominated immediatist abolitionism (Lamb-Books 28). The gothic horrors of the Southern plantation world with its violations of the sacred institution of the family and the guilty compliance of Northern institutions are turned into a mirror for child readers to look into and judge whether they see themselves reflected in what they read. Antislavery authors were keen on raising their readers’ awareness of the adversities faced by African American children, women and men because they were convinced that reading abolitionist literature was a major way for the young to gain vicarious experience of the shattering hardships that enslaved Americans lived endured first-hand.

These texts present a wide range of controversial topics for the vast majority of nineteenth-century Americans. A short piece included in The Slave’s Friend (Vol. II, VII) warned against teachers’ fears of introducing the contentious subject of slavery into their classrooms and how these reservations also condemned them to a kind of moral bondage: “Many teachers are afraid to have anti-slavery matters discussed in their schools. They think that parents will take their children away if any thing is said or done on behalf of poor slaves. Thus this fear makes them slaves. White slaves!” The graphic depiction of ethically offensive behaviors, explicit portrayals of torture and compelling violent incidents in these texts vividly promoted dangerous and subversive ideas that went against the law and the Constitution of the United States. Furthermore, children were encouraged to react enthusiastically and to feel moral indignation, so as not to replicate the outrages and the corrupting power of slavery. Reading was equated with knowledge and knowledge was equated with moral responsibility, and therefore reading about “the abominations of slavery” became an act of emotional personal transformation. Abolitionist writings for children were provocative literature intended to raise their readers’ awareness about the political, economic, religious injustices that slavery enclosed; they repeatedly urged children to put themselves in the place of the enslaved Americans and sympathize with their plight. Children were thus turned into powerful agents of political change and potential activists to spread the abolitionist message. Invited to comply with a higher law that entailed the breaking of their nation’s edicts, children were morally rewarded by the Christian God and approvingly applauded by their elders for their violation of these same American regulations. These texts enclosed immeasurable value for young nineteenth-century Americans to fulfill a more democratic and egalitarian role in their future. Undoubtedly, abolitionist writings for children took away American children’s innocence and transformed them into juvenile abolitionists and empowered compassionate citizens.

Timeline

1772 Lord Mansfield rules on the Somerset case (once in Britain slaves cannot be forced to return to the colonies, thus granting them de facto emancipation)

1773 Phillis Wheatley, Poems on Various Subjects

1775 Philadelphia Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery formed

1786 Thomas Clarkson, An Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species, Particularly the African (London)

1788 The U.S. Constitution is ratified. It protects slavery

1789 Olaudah Equiano, Interesting Narrative (London; 1791 American edition)

1791 Slaves’ rebellions on St. Domingue Eli Whitney patents the cotton gin

1793 First Fugitive Slave Law passed by Congress

1804 Defeat of the French in St. Domingue. Haiti becomes the first independent black nation

“The Grateful Negro,” Maria Edgeworth (in PopularTales)

1807 Britain abolishes the African Slave Trade

1808 United States abolishes the African Slave Trade

1816 American Colonization Society founded to encourage freed blacks to return to Africa

1820 Missouri Compromise allows Missouri to become a slave state, establishes Maine as a free state, and bans slavery in the territory west of Missouri

The Re-captured Negro, Martha Sherwood

1821 Missouri admitted to the Union as a slave state Benjamin Lundy establishes the first American antislavery newspaper, The Genius of Universal Emancipation, in Mt. Pleasant, Ohio

1822 Denmark Vesey, a free black, leads a slave uprising in Charleston, SC.

1823 The Adventures of Congo in Search of His Master; an American Tale (London, Boston 1835). Eliza Farrar

“Old Betty” (1823), Margaret Bayard Smith

1824 Liberia, on the west coast of Africa, is established by freed American slaves

1826 Juvenile Miscellany, editor Lydia Maria Child

1827 The First African American newspaper, Freedom’s Journal, founded by John Russwurm and Samuel Cornish in New York

“The Negro Nurse” (1827), Isabel Drysdale

1829 David Walker, Appeal in Four Articles

1831 William Lloyd Garrison publishes The Liberator Nat Turner’s rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia

“Jumbo and Zairee,” Lydia Maria Child (Juvenile Miscellany, January-February)

1832 Garrison founded Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society

1833 American Anti-Slavery Society founded in Philadelphia Slavery outlawed in Canada and all other British possessions

1834 “Mary French and Susan Preston,” Lydia Maria Child (Juvenile Miscellany, May-June)

Picture of Slavery in the United States, George Bourne

1835 American Anti-Slavery Society begins mailing abolitionist materials to the South. Female antislavery societies—integrated by white and black middle class women— are organized in Boston and Philadelphia

The Slave’s Friend (1835-1837)

1836 “Gag rule,” which prevents the discussion of petitions about slavery, passed in U.S. House of Representatives (it will end in 1844)

“Mary French and Susan Easton” (1836), Lydia Maria Child

1837 The Vigilance Committee, under to the leadership of African American Robert Purvis, is organized in Philadelphia to help fugitive slaves Slavery Illustrated in its Effect upon Woman, George Bourne

1839 Liberty Party is created by a branch of abolitionists to fight against slavery The African slaves aboard the Amistad revolt American Slavery As It is, Theodore Weld

1840 American Anti-Slavery Society splits over the issue of the public involvement of women. Dissidents opposed to women form the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society.

World Anti-Slavery Convention (London). American women are not allowed to serve as delegates

1841 Amistad case reaches U.S. Supreme Court; John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) defends the Africans

1845 Frederick Douglass publishes his Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself

1846 Mexican-American War begins

The Liberty Cap (1846), Eliza Lee Cabot Follen

The Anti-Slavery Alphabet (1846), Hannah and Mary Townsend

1847 Frederick Douglass publishes the North Star, an abolitionist newspaper

1848 Mexican-American War ends

Free Soil Party is created to stop the spread of slavery into the Western territories Slavery is abolished in all French territories

Women’s Rights Convention takes place at Seneca Falls

The Young Abolitionists; or Conversations on Slavery, Jane Elizabeth Jones

1849 Harriet Tubman escapes from slavery and becomes a conductor on the Underground Railroad

Cousin Ann’s Stories for Children, Ann Preston

A Picture of Slavery for Youth (184[?]), Jonathan Walker

1850 Compromise of 1850. Fugitive Slave Act

1852 Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Harriet Beecher Stowe

1853 Pictures and Stories from Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Harriet Beecher Stowe

1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act passed; Republican Party founded

Louisa in her New Home (1854), Sarah C. Carter

1855 Ralph; or, I Wish He Wasn’t Black, Harriet Newell Greene Butts

1856 Warfare breaks out in Kansas over slavery

1857 Dred Scott decision holds that both free and enslaved African Americans are not citizens

1859 John Brown unsuccessfully raids U.S. arsenal at Harpers Ferry. He is executed

The Child’s Anti-Slavery Book, Containing a Few Words About American Slave Children and Stories of Slave-Life, Julia Colman, Mathilda G. Thompson

1860 Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) elected 16th president

1861 Civil War begins; Kansas admitted to the Union as a free state

1862 Step by Step, or Tidy’s Way to Freedom, Mrs Helen E. Brown

1863 Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation

1864 The Gospel of Slavery: A Primer of Freedom, Iron Gray (Abel C. Thomas)

1865 Civil War ends; Lincoln assassinated; Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution outlaws slavery.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary works

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——. Babay: The True Story of a Good Negro Woman. Cheap Repository Tracts 1. London: J. Marshall and R. White, 1795.

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Carter, Sarah C. Louisa in her New Home. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Antislavery Society, 1854.

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Lundy, Benjamin. The Poetical Works of Elizabeth Margaret Chandler, With A Memoir of Her Life and Character, Philadelphia: Lemuel Howell, 1836.

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Townsend, Hannah and Mary Townsend. The Anti-Slavery Alphabet. Philadelphia Anti-Slavery Fair, 1846.

Wakefield, Priscilla. A Family Tour Through the British Empire: Containing Some Account of Its Manufactures, Natural and Artificial Curiosities, History and Antiquities; Interspersed with Biographical Anecdotes Particularly Adapted to the Amusement and Instruction of Youth. London: Darton and Harvey, 1804.

——. Excursions in North America: Described in Letters from a Gentleman and His Young Companion, to Their Friends in England. London: Darton and Harvey, 1806.

Walker, Jonathan. A Picture of Slavery for Youth. By the Author of “The Branded Hand” and “Chattelized Humanity.” Boston: J. Walker and W.R. Bliss, 184[?].

——. Trial and Imprisonment of Jonathan Walker, at Pensacola, Florida, for Aiding Slaves to Escape from Bondage. Boston: The Anti-Slavery Office, 1845.

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Alonso, Harriet Hymau. Growing up Abolitionist: The Story of the Garrison Children. Amherst, Mass.: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002.

Anti-Slavery International, http://www.antislavery.org/

Aries, Philippe. Centuries of Childhood: Social History of Family Life. Translated from the French by Robert Baldick. New York: New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962.

Bacon, Jacqueline. “‘Do You Understand Your Own Language?’ Revolutionary Topoi in the Rhetoric of African-American Abolitionists.” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 28.2 (Spring 1998): 55-75.

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Bales, Kevin. Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.

Basker, James G. “Introduction.” Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems About Slavery. Ed. James G. Basker. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2002. xxxiii-xlviii.

Baer, Elizabeth R. “A New Algorithm in Evil: Children’s Literature in a Post-Holocaustal World.” The Lion and the Unicorn 24.3 (2000): 378-401.

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——. “Concluded. Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race.” De Bow’s Southern and Western Review XI. Vol. 1, nº 3 (September 1851): 331-336.

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——. “‘Those people must have loved her very dearly’: Interracial Adoption and Radical Love in Antislavery Children’s Literature.” Early American Studies 14.4 (2016): 749-780.

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THE SLAVE’S LITTLE FRIENDS AMERICAN ANTISLAVERY WRITINGS FOR CHILDREN