Читать книгу Essential Japanese Vocabulary - Akira Miura - Страница 11
ОглавлениеE 絵 picture
E 絵 means “picture,” but only in reference to a drawn or painted picture. Unlike English “picture” it cannot refer to a movie or a photograph. A movie is an eiga 映画, and a photograph is a shashin 写真. E may mean “photograph” only in the compound e-hagaki 絵はがき “picture postcard.”
E e ええ yes
Ee ええ is a more conversational version of hai はい. Use it, however, only as a response to a question.
EXAMPLE:
A: Are wa Ueda-san deshō ka.
あれは上田さんでしょうか。
Might that be Mr. Ueda?
B: Ee, sō desu yo.
ええ、そうですよ。
Yes, it is.
Do not use ee ええ as a response to a knock on the door or the calling of your name. For that purpose, only hai はい is appropriate.
Eiga 映画 movie
English has several words meaning “motion picture,” but Japanese has only one, eiga 映画. A movie theater is eigakan 映画館. “To go to a movie” is eiga e (or ni) iku 映画へ（に）行く, but not *eigakan e (or ni) iku 映画館へ（に）行く. Until the 1930s or so, movies were called katsudō-shashin 活動写真 (or katsudō 活動 for short), which literally means “motion picture.” It was a very common word until it was gradually replaced by eiga 映画, which is now the only term for “movie.”
Enpitsu 鉛筆 pencil
In English, not only a regular pencil but also a mechanical pencil may be called a pencil. In Japanese, however, enpitsu 鉛筆 refers to a regular pencil only. A mechanical pencil is called shāpu-penshiru シャープペンシル, or simply shāpen シャーペン, which is traceable to “Eversharp,” the brand name of the first U.S.-made mechanical pencil.
Erai 偉い great; celebrated; praiseworthy; admirable
In his Zoku Nihonjin no Eigo (1990), Mark Petersen describes erai 偉い as one of those common Japanese words that are extremely hard to translate into English. First, erai means “great.”
EXAMPLE:
(1) Ryōshin o hontō ni erai to omotte irareru kodomo wa shiawase da.
両親を本当に偉いと思っていられる子供は幸せだ。
Children who can think their parents are truly great are fortunate.
Sometimes, erai 偉い means “of higher rank.”
EXAMPLE:
(2) A: Boku-tachi koko ni suwatte mo ii?
僕たちここに座ってもいい？
May we sit here?
B: Soko wa erai hito-tachi no seki da kara dame.
そこは偉い人たちの席だからだめ。
No, you can’t. Those seats are reserved for VIPs.
Such translations as “praiseworthy” and “admirable” make it sound as though erai 偉 い is indeed a big word reserved for special occasions, but it is not so at all. In fact, it is used all the time on ordinary occasions. For example, if a child brings home a good report card from school, his or her mother might say,
EXAMPLE:
(3) Erakatta ne!
偉かったね！
Good for you! (lit., That was great!)
If a little child falls and skins his or her knee but tries not to cry, his or her mother will definitely say,
EXAMPLE:
(4) Erai, erai! 偉い、偉い！
Good boy/girl!
Fudan ふだん usual
Fudan ふだん means “usual” in the sense of “occurring at normal times or in everyday situations.” Sentence (1) is, therefore, correct, but sentence (2) is not.
EXAMPLES:
(1) Fudan kara benkyō-shite oku to, shiken ni natte mo komaranai.
ふだんから勉強しておくと、試験になっても困らない。
If you keep studying (normally), you won’t have trouble with exams.
(2) *Kenji wa fudan no seinen da. *健二はふだんの青年だ。
Kenji is an average young man.
In (2) above, fudan ふだん should be replaced by futsū ふつう, as in (3).
EXAMPLE:
(3) Kenji wa futsū no seinen da.
健二はふつうの青年だ。
Kenji is an average young man.
Fujin 婦人 A woman
Fujin 婦人, meaning “woman,” sounds quite old-fashioned as compared with josei 女性. Until a few decades ago, women’s restrooms in public places were designated as fujin-yō 婦人用 (lit., “for women’s use”). Nowadays, however, such restrooms probably just have a red logo shaped like a woman on the doors or are designated as josei instead. I am certain no enlightened Japanese women of today would like to be referred to as fujin or even gofujin ご婦人 with the addition of an honorific prefix.
Fuku 服 clothes; clothing
Fuku 服, unlike “clothes” or “clothing,” does not include underwear. Kinō fuku o aratta きのう服を洗った (lit., “I washed clothes yesterday”) sounds as though you washed washable dresses or suits.
Fuku usually refers to Western-style clothes such as dresses and suits, and not to kimonos. However, if one really wants to make a clear distinction between kimonos and Western-style clothes, one should use wafuku 和服 or kimono 着物 for the former and yōfuku 洋服 for the latter, as in
EXAMPLE:
Konogoro no wakamono wa yōfuku bakari de, wafuku wa motte-iru hito mo sukunai darō.
このごろの若者は洋服ばかりで、和服は持っている人も少ないだろう。
Young men these days wear only Western clothes, and there are probably very few who own kimonos.
Furui 古い old
Furui 古い meaning “old” is used, as a rule, in reference to inanimate things.
EXAMPLES:
(1) Anna furui ie wa kawanai hō ga ii desu yo.
あんな古い家は買わない方がいいですよ。
You shouldn’t buy an old house like that.
(2) Kono ōbā mo zuibun furuku-natta.
このオーバーもずいずん古くなった。
This overcoat has gotten quite old.
With reference to persons, other words such as toshi o totta 年をとった “old, aged,” toshiyori 年寄り “old person,” and rōjin 老人 “old person” have to be used.
EXAMPLES:
(3) Murata-san mo toshi o totta nē.
村田さんも年をとったねえ。
Hasn’t Mr. Murata grown old!
(4) Asoko ni toshiyori no obāsan ga suwatte-iru deshō.
あそこに年寄りのおばあさんが座っているでしょう。
Do you see that old lady sitting there?
(5) Ano rōjin-tachi ni seki o yuzurō.
あの老人達に席をゆずろう。
Let’s give our seats to those old people.
When furui 古い is used with reference to persons, it can carry different meanings.
EXAMPLES:
(6) Kono kaisha de ichiban furui no wa Yamada-san da.
この会社で一番古いのは山田さんだ。
The person with the most seniority in this firm is Mr. Yamada.
(7) Ano hito wa mō furui.
あの人はもう古い。
He is passé (or behind the times)
Furui 古い is sometimes shortened to furu 古 and added to other words to form compounds.
EXAMPLE:
(8) furu-hon, furu-gi, furu-shinbun 古本、古着、古新聞
used books, used clothes, old newspapers
Furusato ふるさと birthplace; home village, hometown
If you asked Japanese people what words sound the best to them, I have a feeling they might choose furusato ふるさと as one of them. Furusato (lit., “old home village”) is indeed a poetic-sounding, nostalgia-soaked word. It is probably not very frequently used in ordinary conversation but more commonly in literary works such as poems. The same is true with kokyō 故郷, which also means “old home village.” The most common expression in daily conversation is kuni 国 (lit. “country”), as in
EXAMPLE:
Obon ni wa, chotto kuni no ryōshin no tokoro e ikō to omotte-imasu.
お盆には、ちょっと国の両親の所へ行こう思っています。
I’m thinking of going home to visit my parents in the country for the Bon Festival.
Futoru 太る to become fat; to gain weight
“To gain weight” is futoru 太る, and not futoku naru 太くなる “to become thick.”
EXAMPLE:
(1) Yoshida-san wa mukashi zuibun yasete ita keredo, kekkon-shite sukoshi futotta yō da.
吉田さんは昔ずいぶんやせていたけれど、結婚して少し太ったようだ。
Mr. Yoshida used to be very thin, but he seems to have gained some weight since he got married.
Futoku naru 太くなる may refer to a person’s arms and legs, as in sentence (2), but not his/her whole body.
EXAMPLE:
(2) Ano rikishi wa kono goro futotte, ude mo ashi mo futoku-natta.
あの力士はこのごろ太って、腕も足も太くなった。
Recently that sumo wrestler has gained weight; both his arms and his legs have become bigger.
Since futoru 太る by itself means “to become fat” or “to gain weight,” it is totally unnecessary to add naru なる to express the sense of “to become.” It is therefore wrong to use (3) below to mean “I have gained weight.”
EXAMPLE:
(3) *Watashi wa futotte ni natta.
*私は太ってになった。
Gaijin 外人 foreigner
Gaiji 外人, in a broad sense, means “foreigner.” In a narrower sense, however, it refers only to Caucasians, especially those staying in Japan.
Gaikokujin 外国人 (lit., “foreign-country person”), another word for “foreigner,” on the other hand, is more general and simply means “alien (from any country and of any color).”
Gakkō 学校 school
In English, “school” not only refers to nursery school through high school, but sometimes may refer to a college, university, or part thereof, as in
EXAMPLES:
(1) Harvard is a famous school.
(2) That university has a law school, a medical school, an engineering school, etc.
Gakkō 学校, on the other hand, normally refers to schools from the elementary-school level through the high-school level only. Sentence (1) and (2) above, therefore, would be translated into Japanese without the use of gakkō.
EXAMPLES:
(3) Hābādo wa yūmei na daigaku (not *gakkō 学校) desu.
ハーバードは有名な大学です。
Harvard is a famous university.
(4) Ano daigaku ni wa hō-gakubu, i-gakubu, kō-gabuku (not *hō-gakkō 法学校, *i-gakkō 医学校, *kō-gakkō 工学校) nado ga arimasu.
*あの大学には法学部、医学部、工学部などがあります。
That university has a law school, a medical school, an engineering school, etc.
Gakusei 学生 student
Students in a formal educational system, i.e., nursery school through college, are called seito 生徒 or gakusei 学生, depending on the level. Gakusei refers to older students, especially college students. Students of high-school age or younger are usually referred to as seito, although high school students may sometimes be called gakusei also (see SEITO).
Ganbaru がんばる to try one’s best; to stick it out
Ganbaru がんばる is a very frequently used expression, especially in its imperative form, ganbare がんばれ or ganbatte がんばって. It is often used to encourage people who are about to take an exam, play an important game, etc., as in (1) and (2).
EXAMPLES:
(1) A: Kyō wa rekishi no shiken ga aru n da.
今日は歴史の試験があるんだ。
Today I have a history exam.
B: Sō ka. Ja, ganbare yo.
そうか。じゃ、がんばれよ。
Do you? Good luck then.
(2) A: Ashita tenisu no shiai ga aru n desu yo.
あしたテニスの試合があるんですよ。
Tomorrow I have a big tennis match coming up.
B: Sore ja, ganbatte kudasai.
それじゃ、がんばってください。
Good luck then.
Although ganbare がんばれ or ganbatte がんばって is thus used when English speakers would say “Good luck!”, this usage is limited to situations where making effort is involved. If you find out a friend is going into a hospital with a serious illness, therefore, Ganbatte! がんばって! might sound a little out of place. In such a case, Odaiji ni! おだいじ に! (“Take care of yourself!”) would sound more considerate.
Gekijō 劇場 theater
Gekijō 劇場 means “theater” in the sense of “building or place where there is regularly a theatrical performance on the stage.” Although some movie theaters may have names such as X-gekijō, they are not gekijō in the real sense of the word. Movie theaters are normally referred to as eigakan 映画館 instead.
Unlike English “theater,” gekijō can never mean “drama” or “theater arts.” (See also SHIBAI.)
Genki 元気 healthy, well; in good spirits
In English, “healthy” can mean either “in good health,” as in “a healthy person,” or “good for the health,” as in “a healthy drink.” Genki 元気, on the other hand, means “in good health” but can never mean “good for the health.” Sentence (1) is, therefore, right, but sentence (2) is not.
EXAMPLES:
(1) Ogenki desu ka.
お元気ですか。
Are you well?
(2) *Sushi wa genki na tabemono to iwarete-iru.
*寿司は元気な食べ物と言われている。
Sushi is said to be healthy food.
Instead of genki na tabemono 元気な食べ物, one should say karada ni yoi tabemono 体によい食べ物 “food that is good for the body” or kenkōteki na tabemono 健康的な食べ 物 “healthful food.”
Genki 元気 is thus most often used as the opposite of byōki 病気 “sick.”
EXAMPLE:
(3) Nagai aida byōki deshita ga, mō genki ni narimashita.
長い間病気でしたが、もう元気になりました。
I was sick for a long time, but I’m fine now.
Genki 元気 also means “vigor, energy, good spirits” or their corresponding adjectives, i.e., “vigorous, energetic, in good spirits,” as in
EXAMPLES:
(4) Uchi no musuko wa Tōdai no nyūgakushiken ni ochite genki ga nai. Hayaku genki ni natte (or genki o dashite) kureru to ii n da ga.
うちの息子は東大の入学試験に落ちて元気がない。早く元気になって（元気を出して） くれるといいんだが。
My son is in low spirits, having failed the entrance exam to the University of Tokyo. I hope he will cheer up soon.
(5) Yamada-san wa okusan o nakushite genki ga nakatta ga, konogoro mata genki ni natte-kita.
山田さんは奥さんを亡くして元気がなかったが、このごろまた元気になってきた。
Mr. Yamada was in low spirits after he lost his wife, but lately he’s been cheerful (or in better spirits) again.
(See also BYŌKI and OGENKI DESU KA.)
Gimon 疑問 a question; doubt
Although gimon 疑問 is often translated as “question,” it can mean that only in the sense of a question one has in one’s mind. When that question is uttered, it becomes a shitsumon 質問.
EXAMPLE:
Chotto gimon ni omotta node, shitsumon-shite mita.
ちょっと疑問に思ったので、質問してみた。
I had a question in mind, so I asked him.
Because of this difference, although one can say shitsumon-suru 質問する “to ask a question,” one cannot say *gimon-suru 疑問する.
Gogo 午後 afternoon, P.M.
Gogo 午後 means “afternoon,” as in
EXAMPLE:
(1) Ashita no gogo mata kite-kudasai.
あしたの午後また来てください。
Please come again tomorrow afternoon.
Gogo 午後 also means “P.M.,” but unlike “P.M.,” which follows the time (i.e., “2 P.M.,” “3 P.M.,” etc.), it precedes the time.
EXAMPLE:
(2) gogo ni-ji
午後二時
2 P.M.
(See also GOZEN.)
Gohan ご飯, 御飯 cooked rice, meal
In a narrow sense, gohan ご飯 means “cooked rice.”
EXAMPLE:
(1) Gohan o mō ip-pai kudasai.
ご飯をもう一杯ください。
Please give me one more bowl of rice.
In a broader sense, gohan ご飯 means “meal.”
EXAMPLE:
(2) Mō sorosoro ohiru da kara, gohan ni shimashō.
もうそろそろお昼だから、ご飯にしましょう。
Since it’s almost noon, let’s have lunch.
The fact that the same word may mean both “cooked rice” and “meal” points to the important role cooked rice used to play in the traditional Japanese meal. The names of the three daily meals are, most commonly, asa-gohan 朝ご飯 “breakfast,” hiru- (or ohiru-) gohan 昼 （お昼）ご飯 “lunch,” and ban-gohan 晩ご飯 “dinner.”
Men sometimes use the word meshi 飯 instead of gohan ご飯, especially in informal situations. Meshi, like gohan, means both “cooked rice” and “meal.” There is another word meaning “cooked rice,” i.e., raisu ライス from English “rice.” This word, however, has a very limited range of meaning, referring only to cooked rice served on a plate in a Western-style restaurant (Miura, p. 128). It never means “meal.”
Gokurō-sama ご苦労様 Thank you for your work
Gokurō-sama ご苦労様 is an expression of thanks for service rendered such as delivering things or running an errand, and “is most often said to newspaper boys, porters, bellboys, delivery men and the like ... as a verbal tip” (Mizutani and Mizutani, 1, p. 117). It should not be used when someone “has done something for you out of sheer kindness” (ibid.), or when someone does something for his own good (e.g., someone who is studying hard for an examination or jogging for his own health and pleasure).
This greeting may sometimes be directed to a person of higher status. Since it is difficult to predict its appropriateness in a given situation, however, it might be safer to avoid the expression when addressing a person of higher status.
Gomen-kudasai ごめんください Is anybody home?
When visiting a Japanese home, you first ring the bell and wait for someone to answer. But what should you do if the bell is not working or if there is no bell at the front door? In that case, the best thing would be to shout out Gomenkudasai! ごめんください, which literally means “Please excuse me” but is used in the sense of “Is anybody home?” If the door is not locked, you can even open the door (this is accepted behavior in Japan though totally unacceptable in the U.S.) and shout out Gomenkudasai! (see GOMEN-NASAI.)
Gomen-nasai ごめんなさい Sorry!
Gomen-nasai ごめんなさい “Sorry!” is an apology used mostly at home between family members, especially by children apologizing to parents (Mizutani and Mizutani, pp. 14–15). Outside the home, too, Gomen-nasai is used mostly by children. An adult may say it, in informal situations, to someone lower in status. In formal situations, adults use Shitsureishimasu 失礼します or Shitsurei-shimashita 失礼しました (see SHITSUREI-SHIMASU).
-Goro ごろ about, approximately
-Goro ごろ is a variant of koro ころ “about, approximately” and is used exclusively as a suffix attached to nouns indicating points in time.
EXAMPLES:
(1) go-ji-goro
五時ごろ
about 5 o’clock
(2) san-gatsu-goro
三月ごろ
about March
Because of the Japanese speaker’s reluctance to be precise or exact, -goro ごろ is used more frequently in Japanese than “about” is used in English in reference to points in time. For example, instead of using Nanji desu ka 何時ですか to mean “What time is it?” many Japanese speakers ask Nanji-goro desu ka 何時ごろですか “About what time is it?” In English, however, “About what time is it?” is much rarer than “What time is it?”
Some speakers use koro ころ instead of -goro ごろ to mean the same thing.
EXAMPLE:
(3) san-gatsu koro
三月ころ
about March
When not preceded by a noun, koro ころ, not -goro ごろ, is the correct word. In the following sentence, therefore, -goro cannot be used.
EXAMPLE:
(4) Wakai koro (not *-goro ごろ) wa yokatta!
若いころは良かった！
Ah, those good old days when I was still young!
(See also KONOGORO and KORO.)
Gozen 午前 A.M.
Gozen 午前 is the opposite of gogo 午後 meaning “P.M.” (see GOGO).
EXAMPLE:
(1) Gozen san-ji desu ka, gogo san-ji desu ka.
午前三時ですか、午後三時ですか？
Do you mean 3 A.M. or 3 P.M.?
Whereas gogo 午後 is often used adverbially, gozen 午前 is not. For example, while sentence (2) below is perfectly normal, (3) is a little unnatural.
EXAMPLES:
(2) Ashita no gogo kite-kudasai.
あしたの午後来てください。
Please come tomorrow afternoon.
(3) ?Ashita no gozen kite-kudasai.
あしたの午前来て下さい。
Please come tomorrow morning.
When used adverbially gozen 午前 usually takes the suffix -chū 中 “during.”
EXAMPLE:
(4) Ashita no gozen-chū kite-kudasai.
あしたの午前中来て下さい。
Please come tomorrow morning.
Sentence (4) is not synonymous with Ashita no asa kitekudasai あしたの朝来て下さい since gozen-chū 午前中 covers a longer time span (i.e., up to noon) than asa does (see ASA).
-Gurai ぐらい about, approximately
-Gurai ぐらい, as well as its variant -kurai くらい, indicates an approximate amount of anything.
EXAMPLES:
(1) Ano hon wa ikura ka shirimasen ga, tabun nisen-en-gurai deshō.
あの本はいくらか知りませんが、たぶん二千円ぐらいでしょう。
I’m not sure how much that book is, but it’s probably about two thousand yen.
(2) Ano hito wa gojū-gurai deshō.
あの人は五十ぐらいでしょう。
He is probably about fifty.
Although -gurai ぐらい is quite similar in meaning to its English counterparts such as “about” and “approximately,” it is probably used more often in Japanese than “about” or “approximately” are in English because of the Japanese speaker’s reluctance to be too precise, definite, or specific. Japanese speakers often say to a salesclerk Mittsu-gurai kudasai 三つぐらいください (lit., “Give me about three”), for example, even when they want exactly three of something. This is the same psychology that leads them to say nan-ji-goro 何時ごろ “about what time” instead of nan-ji 何時 “what time.”
-Gurai ぐらい is different from -goro ごろ (see -GORO) in that the latter is specifically for points in time (e.g., san-ji-goro 3 時ごろ “about 3 o’clock” and roku-gatsu-goro 6 時ご ろ “about June”) while the former is for amounts of anything. Some native speakers of Japanese do occasionally use -gurai with a word indicating a point in time, e.g., ni-ji-gurai 2 時ぐらい instead of ni-ji-goro 2 時ごろ for about 2 o’clock.” This particular use of -gurai ぐらい, however, is not really advisable.
Gyaku 逆 opposite; reverse
Gyaku 逆 and hantai 反対 are both translated as “opposite” and are often used interchangeably. For example, in sentence (1), either may be used.
EXAMPLE:
(1) Kyū ni gyaku/hantai no hōkō kara kare ga arawareta node bikkuri-shita.
急に逆/反対の方向から彼が現れたのでびっくりした。
I was surprised to see him suddenly appear from the opposite direction.
However, there is a slight difference in connotation. Gyaku 逆 connotes “the opposite of what’s normal or correct,” whereas hantai 反対 has no such connotation. For example,
EXAMPLE:
(2) Ichi kara jū made gyaku ni itte mite kudasai.
一から十まで逆に言ってみてください。
Please try saying 1 through 10 backwards.
When one recites 1 through 10, one usually does it in normal order, i.e., ichi 一, ni 二, san 三, . . . Saying the numbers backwards, i.e., jū 十, kyū 九, hachi 八, . . . would be contrary to the norm. In sentence (2), therefore, hantai ni 反対に would sound a little strange. Even in sentence (1) above, that difference is still there. The expression gyaku no hōkō 逆 の方向 connotes “direction contrary to my expectation,” whereas hantai no hōkō 反対の 方向 simply means “opposite direction.”
Habuku 省く to leave out
Habuku 省く basically means “to leave out” or “to omit,” as in
EXAMPLE:
(1) Nihongo de wa bun no shugo o habuku koto ga ōi.
日本語では文の主語を省くことが多い。
In Japan, the subject of a sentence is often left out.
In this sense, habuku 省く is very much like ryakusu 略す, which also can mean “to omit.” Ryakusu 略す, therefore, can be used instead of habuku 省く in sentence (1). Ryakusu, however, is different in the sense it also means “to abbreviate,” as in
EXAMPLE:
(2) “Terebi” wa “terebijon” o ryakushita mono da.
「テレビ」は「テレビジョン」を略したものだ。
Terebi is an abbreviation of terebijon.
Habuku 省く has no such meaning.
Hadaka 裸 naked
To be described as hadaka 裸, one does not have to be completely naked. A Japanese fisherman with nothing but a loincloth on may be described as hadaka. If a boy is lying down with nothing covering his upper body, his mother might say Hadaka de nete-iru to kaze o hikimasu yo 裸で寝ていると風邪をひきますよ “You’ll catch a cold if you lie down half-naked.” In a pickup basketball game in America, if one of the teams is shirtless, its members are called the Skins. Their Japanese counterparts would be referred to as Hadaka.
To convey the meaning “completely naked,” one would have to say mappadaka 真っ 裸 (lit., “truly naked”).
Hagemasu 励ます to encourage
Once an American student wrote sentence (1) in a composition.
EXAMPLE:
(1) *Amerika no sensei wa gakusei ga shitsumon o kiku koto o hagemasu.
*アメリカの先生は学生が質問を聞くことを励ます。
American teachers encourage their students to ask questions.
Aside from the fact that shitsumon o kiku 質問を聞く should be replaced by shitsumon o suru 質問する to mean “to ask questions,” the above sentence is wrong in that hagemasu 励ます is not used correctly. Hagemasu basically means “to encourage someone who is down-hearted,” as in
EXAMPLE:
(2) Nyūgakushiken ni ochita tomodachi o hagemashita.
入学試験に落ちた友達を励ました。
I encouraged a friend who flunked an entrance exam.
Sentence (1) should probably be rephrased as below.
EXAMPLE:
(3) Amerika no sensei wa gakusei kara no shitsumon o kangei-suru.
アメリカの先生は学生からの質問を歓迎する。
American teachers welcome questions from their students.
Hageshii 激しい violent
Hageshii 激しい in the sense of “violent” may be used to describe weather-related things such as kaze 風 “wind,” ame 雨 “rain,” arashi 嵐 “storm,” and yuki 雪 “snow.” It may also serve an adjective for kotoba 言葉 “words,” kanjō 感情 “feelings,” etc., as in:
EXAMPLE:
(1) Hageshii kotoba o butsuke-atta.
激しい言葉をぶつけ合った。
They hurled fiery words at each other.
Hageshii 激しい, however, is inappropriate for describing such things as societies and movies. For example, sentences (2a) and (2b) are both strange.
EXAMPLES:
(2a) *Konogoro shakai ga hageshiku natte-kita.
*このごろ社会が激しくなってきた。
Recently society has become violent.
(2b) *Watashi wa hageshii eiga wa suki ja nai.
*私は激しい映画は好きじゃない。
I don’t like violent movies.
To make these sentences appropriate, use bōryoku 暴力 “violence” or its derivatives.
EXAMPLES:
(3a) Konogoro shakai ga bōryoku-teki ni natte-kita (or bōryoku-ka shite-kita).
このごろ社会が暴力的になってきた。（暴力化してきた。）
(3b) Watashi wa bōryoku-eiga wa suki ja nai.
私は暴力映画は好きじゃない。
Haha 母 mother
Words for “mother” function in parallel to those for “father.” The basic rules are: haha 母 corresponds to chichi 父, okā-san お母さん to otō-san お父さん, and ofukuro お袋 to oyaji 親父 (see CHICHI).
Ha i はい yes
Hai はい is used in response to questions (also requests, demands, and suggestions) to signal agreement or assent. Although hai is often equated with “yes,” it is not the same as “yes”; it is more like “That’s right.” In fact, it corresponds to “yes” only when used as a response to affirmative questions. In response to negative questions, it corresponds to “no.”
EXAMPLES:
(1) A: Wakarimasu ka. (affirmative question)
分かりますか。
Do you understand?
B: Hai, wakarimasu.
はい、分かります。
Yes, I do. (lit., That’s right. I understand.)
(2) A: Wakarimasen ka. (negative question)
分かりませんか。
Don’t you understand?
B: Hai, wakarimasen.
はい、分かりません。
No, I don’t. (lit., That’s right. I don’t understand.)
From the above examples, the following becomes clear. In English, what determines the choice between “yes” and “no” is what follows; i.e., if what follows is in the affirmative (e.g., “I do”), you use “yes,” whereas if what follows is in the negative (e.g., “I don’t”), you use “no.” In Japanese, on the other hand, what determines the choice of hai はい or iie いいえ (see IIE) is whether you wish to indicate agreement or disagreement with the question. If you agree, you use hai はい, and if you disagree, you use iie いいえ; whether what follows is in the affirmative (e.g., wakarimasu 分かります) or in the negative (e.g., wakarimasen 分かりません) is immaterial.
Hai はい, when used in response to negative questions, usually corresponds to “no,” as explained above. There are some cases, however, where hai はい used as a response to negative questions corresponds to “yes” instead.
EXAMPLE:
(3) A: Genki-sō ni natta ja arimasen ka.
元気そうになったじゃありませんか。
Aren’t you looking perfectly well!
B: Hai, okage-sama de, kono goro wa sukkari genki ni narimashita.
はい、おかげさまで、このごろはすっかり元気になりました。
Yes, I’m perfectly well now, thank you.
The above question, though negative in form, is actually affirmative in spirit. What the question really means is “You’re looking perfectly well, and that’s great!” Speaker B therefore says hai はい to show agreement with the spirit of the question. Consider two more examples.
EXAMPLES:
(4) A: Ashita mo kite-kuremasen ka.
あしたも来てくれませんか。
Will you come again tomorrow? (lit., Won’t you come again tomorrow?)
B: Hai, ukagaimasu.
はい、伺います。
Yes, I’ll be glad to.
(5) A: Tenki ga ii kara, yakyū de mo shimasen ka.
天気がいいから、野球でもしませんか。
Since the weather is so nice, how about playing baseball or something (lit., shall we not play baseball or something)?
B: Hai (or Ee), shimashō.
はい（ええ）、しましょう。
Yes, let’s!
Although the A sentences above are negative in form, (4A) is actually a request with the meaning of “Please come again tomorrow,” and (5A) is a suggestion meaning “How about doing such-and-such?” This use of hai はい is, therefore, not really an exception; it still follows the basic rule: If you are in agreement, use hai.
Hai はい is a formal expression. In less formal speech, hai is often replaced by ee ええ. In even more informal speech (especially by men, youngsters, and little children), un うん, or simply n ん, is used.
In addition to the main use explained above, hai はい has other functions, some of which are described below. With the exception of (6), neither ee ええ nor un うん can be used in place of hai in these examples.
Hai sometimes indicates “I’m listening” instead of “That’s right.”
EXAMPLE:
| (6) Boss: | Kinō hanami ni ittara ne. きのう花見に行ったらね。 Yesterday we went to see the cherry blossoms. |
| Employee: | Hai. はい。 Yes? |
| Boss: | Yuki ga futte-ki-chatta n da yo. 雪が降ってきちゃったんだよ。 It started snowing, of all things. |
Hai はい, when used in response to the calling of one’s name, signals “Here!” or “Present!” In (7) below, a teacher is taking attendance in class.
EXAMPLE:
| (7) Teacher: | Tanaka-san. 田中さん。 Miss Tanaka! |
| Miss Tanaka: | Hai. はい。 Here! |
Hai はい serves to draw the addressee’s attention, for example, when one hands something to someone (e.g., when a salesclerk gives change back to a customer), as in (8), or when a student raises his hand to draw the teacher’s attention, as in sentence (9).
EXAMPLES:
| (8) Salesclerk: | Hai. Go-hyaku-en no otsuri desu. はい。五百円のおつりです。 Here you are. Five hundred yen. |
| (9) Student: | Hai! (raising his hand) はい！ Sir? |
| Teacher: | Nan desu ka. なんですか。 What is it? |
| Student: | Chotto shitsumon ga aru n desu ga. ちょっと質問があるんですか。 May I ask you a question? |
Ha iru 入る to enter; join
Hairu 入る has several meanings. The most common one is “to enter,” as in
EXAMPLES:
(1a) Musuko ga kondo daigaku ni hairimashita.
息子が今度大学に入りました。
My son just entered college.
(1b) Yūbe dorobō ni hairareta.
ゆうべ泥棒に入られた。
Last night a thief entered (i.e., broke into) my house.
Hairu 入る can also mean “to join” (such things as clubs).
EXAMPLE:
(2) Tarō wa kōkō de tenisubu ni haitta.
太郎は高校でテニス部に入った。
Taro joined the tennis club in high school.
It should be noted that English “enter” does not necessarily correspond to hairu 入る.
EXAMPLE:
(3) Tōnamento ni deru (not *hairu 入る) tsumori desu.
トーナメントに出るつもりです。
I’m planning on entering the tournament.
Hajime はじめ beginning
Hajime はじめ “beginning” and hajimete “for the first time” sound very much alike and are therefore often mistakenly used. Sentences (1a) and (2a) are wrong, while (1b) and (2b) are correct.
EXAMPLES:
(1a) *Nihon de wa, shinnen no hajimete no mikkakan yoku omochi o taberu.
*日本では、新年のはじめての三日間よくおもちを食べる。
lit., In Japan, they eat a lot of mochi for three days that occur for the first time in the new year.
(1b) Nihon de wa, shinnen no hajime no mikkakan yoku omochi o taberu.
日本では、新年のはじめの三日間よくおもちを食べる。
In Japan, they eat a lot of mochi during the first three days of the new year.
(2a) *Hajimete Nihongo ga heta deshita.
*はじめて日本語が下手でした。
lit., For the first time, I was bad at Japanese.
(2b) Hajime wa Nihongo ga heta deshita.
はじめは日本語が下手でした。
In the beginning, I was bad at Japanese.
Hajimeru 始める to begin something
At the beginning of something such as a meeting or a class, one may say “Let’s begin!” in English. English speakers, transferring this sentence to Japanese, often make the error of saying Hajimarimashō 始まりましょう. One must use the transitive counterpart as in sentence (1).
EXAMPLE:
(1) Hajimemashō.
始めましょう。
Let’s begin.
Hajimaru 始める is intransitive and means “something begins.” It cannot mean “someone begins something.” For the latter, the transitive hajimeru 始める is required. Although, in sentence (1) above, the object of the verb is not stated, it is clearly implied in that one wants to begin something such as a meeting or a class, hence the use of the transitive verb.
Likewise, the following sentence is also incorrect.
EXAMPLE:
(2) *Fuyu ni naru to, yuki ga furi-hajimaru.
*冬になると、雪が降り始まる。
When winter comes, it starts snowing.
In this case, although there is no noun that serves as the object, the verb furi- 降り is the object. The intransitive verb hajimaru 始まる, therefore, has to be changed to the transitive hajimeru 始める, as in
EXAMPLE:
(3) Fuyu ni naru to, yuki ga furi-hajimeru.
冬になると、雪が降り始める。
Hajimete 初めて for the first time; Hajimete 始めて beginning something
There are two kinds of hajimete. One means “for the first time” and is written 初めて, as in
EXAMPLE:
(1) Hajimete Kankokugo o kiita toki, zuibun Nihongo to chigau na to omotta.
初めて韓国語を聞いたとき、ずいぶん日本語と違うなと思った。
When I heard Korean for the first time, I thought it was really different from Japanese.
The other hajimete is the te-form of hajimeru 始める and is written 始めて, as in
EXAMPLE:
(2) Kyō wa kono shigoto o hajimete mikka-me da.
きょうはこの仕事を始めて三日目だ。
Today is the third day since I started this work.
These two words are not only written differently, but are pronounced differently. Hajimete 初めて has an accent on the second syllable, whereas hajimete 始めて is accentless.
Haku はく to put on, to wear
Haku はく is reserved for wearing hosiery (e.g., kutsushita 靴下 “socks” and sutokkingu ストッキング “stockings”), footwear (e.g., kutsu 靴 “shoes” and būtsu ブーツ “boots”), and other items that are worn on the lower part of the body by putting one’s legs through them (e.g., sukāto スカート “skirt” and zubon ズボン “trousers”).
EXAMPLES:
(1) Nihon no josei wa itsu-goro kara sukāto o haku yō ni natta n deshō ka.
日本の女性はいつごろからスカートをはくようになったんでしょうか。
I wonder when Japanese women started wearing skirts.
(2) Kono-goro no onna-no-hito wa tenki ga yokute mo būtsu o haite-iru.
このごろ女の人は天気がよくてもブーツをはいている。
Women these days wear boots even when the weather is good.
As a rule, the act of putting on certain items is haku はく while the state of wearing them is haite-iru はいている. In (3), for example, where the act of putting shoes on is the issue, only haku can be used whereas in (4), where the state of wearing a skirt is the issue, haite-iru is correct.
EXAMPLES:
(3) Nihonjin wa uchi o deru mae ni kutsu o haku (not *haite-iru はいている).
日本人は家を出る前に靴をはく。
Japanese put on their shoes before leaving the house.
(4) Asoko ni pinku no sukāto o haite-iru (not *haku はく) onnano-hito ga iru deshō.
あそこにピンクのスカートをはいている女の人がいるでしょう。
Do you see that woman who is wearing a pink skirt?
(See also HAMERU, KABURU, and KIRU.)
Haku 吐く to vomit; to eject out of the mouth
Ejecting something out of the mouth is haku 吐く, whatever it is that comes out, e.g.,
EXAMPLES:
(1a) tsuba o haku
つばを吐く
to spit
(1b) Samui hi ni wa, haku iki ga shiroku mieru.
寒い日には、吐く息が白く見える。
On cold days our breath looks white.
(1c) Nihon no yopparai wa yoku haku.
日本の酔っ払いはよく吐く。
Drunks in Japan often vomit.
Haku 吐く in the sense of “vomit” is an acceptable expression, but modosu もどす might be a little more genteel. Gero o haku げろを吐く is very much like English “puke” and should be avoided in polite company.
Hameru はめる to put on, to wear
Things that one puts on by putting a hand or fingers through them require the verb hameru はめる.
EXAMPLE:
(1) yubiwa (udewa, udedokei, tebukuro, gurōbu, etc.) o hameru
指輪（腕輪、腕時計、手袋、グローブ）をはめる
to put on a ring (a bracelet, a wristwatch, gloves, a baseball glove, etc.)
Hameru はめる is often replaced by suru する.
EXAMPLE:
(2) Samui hi ni wa tebukuro o hameta (or shita) hō ga ii.
寒い日は手袋をはめた（した）方がいい。
It’s better to wear gloves on cold days.
Hanasu 話す to tell; to speak
Hanasu 話す, unlike iu 言う, is not used for uttering just a word or a sentence, i.e., it is used with reference to a whole conversation or a whole talk, or when such is implied.
EXAMPLES:
(1) Yūbe wa tomodachi to nagai aida hanashite (not *itte 言って) tanoshikatta.
ゆうべは友達と長い間話して楽しかった。
Last night I had a good time talking with a friend.
(2) Kare wa “Ja mata” to itte (not *hanashite 話して) kaette-itta.
彼は「じゃ、また」と言って帰っていった。
He left, saying, “See you!”
When the object is a language, hanasu 話す, not iu 言う, is used.
EXAMPLE:
(3) Konogoro wa jōzu ni Nihongo o hanasu (not *iu 言う) gaikokujin ga fuete-kita.
このごろは上手に日本語を話す外国人が増えてきた。
These days, foreigners who speak Japanese well have increased in number.
When the particle is not o を but de で, either hanasu 話す or iu 言う may be used, as in the following example. However, there is a slight difference in meaning between (4a) and (4b), which, I hope, is clear from the translations given.
EXAMPLES:
(4a) Eigo de hanashite mo ii desu ka.
英語で話してもいいですか。
May I speak/talk in English?
(4b) Eigo de itte mo ii desu ka.
英語で言ってもいいですか。
May I say it in English?
Another difference between hanasu 話す and iu 言う is that, while hanasu 話す does not need an object, iu 言う does.
EXAMPLE:
(5) Asoko de hanashite-iru (not *itte-iru 言っている) no wa Suzuki-san darō.
あそこで話しているのは鈴木さんだろう。
The person talking over there must be Mr. Suzuki.
Hane 羽 feather; wing
Hane 羽 means both “feather” and “wing,” but the context usually makes the meaning clear, as in
EXAMPLES:
(1) Hane no tsuita bōshi o kabutte-iru.
羽のついた帽子をかぶっている。
She is wearing a hat with a feather.
(2) Hane ga areba sugu tonde-ikimasu yo.
羽があればすぐとんでいきますよ。
If I had wings, I would fly over right away.
Hantai-suru 反対する to oppose
Hantai-suru 反対する means “to oppose,” as in
EXAMPLE:
(1) Heiwa ni hantai-suru hito ga iru darō ka.
平和に反対する人がいるだろうか。
I wonder if there is anybody who opposes peace.
Hansuru 反する, on the other hand, means “to violate.” The difference between hantaisuru 反対する and hansuru should be clear from the following example.
EXAMPLES:
(2a) Sono hōritsu ni hantai-suru hito ga ōi.
その法律に反対する人が多い。
There are many people who oppose the law.
(2b) Hōritsu ni hansuru kōi wa yokunai.
法律に反する行為はよくない。
Illegal acts (lit., acts that violate the law) are not good.
Hataraku 働く to work
Hataraku 働く means “to work” as in
EXAMPLES:
(1) Tonari no otetsudai-san wa itsumo daidokoro de hataraite-iru.
となりのお手伝いさんはいつも台所で働いている。
The maid next door is always working in the kitchen.
(2) Ano kōba no kōin-tachi wa yoku hataraku.
あの工場の工員たちはよく働く。
The workers at that factory work very hard.
Although hataraku 働く and shigoto o suru 仕事をする “to do a job” are similar in meaning, the latter is probably more appropriate for desk work.
EXAMPLE:
(3) Ano sakka wa hiruma ni nete, yoru shigoto o suru sō da.
あの作家は昼間に寝て、夜仕事をするそうだ。
I hear that novelist sleeps during the day and works at night.
English “work” is sometimes almost synonymous with “study,” e.g.,
EXAMPLE:
(4) He is working for his doctorate.
In Japanese, however, hataraku 働く cannot be used in that sense. Studying is referred to as benkyō-suru 勉強する (see BENKYŌ-SURU).
EXAMPLE:
(5) Kare wa hakushigō o toru tame ni benkyō-shite-iru.
彼は博士号を取るために勉強している。
He is studying for a doctorate.
Unlike “work,” hataraku 働く cannot be used in reference to pastimes and hobbies. Therefore, to express the idea of “work” as expressed in (6) below, some word other than hataraku 働く would have to be used, as in (7).
EXAMPLES:
(6) He is working hard to organize his stamp collection in his spare time.
(7) Kare wa hima na toki, kitte no korekushon o isshōkenmei seiri-shite-iru.
彼はひまな時、切手のコレクションを一生懸命整理している。
lit., He is assiduously organizing his stamp collection in his spare time.
In English, if you are an employee of General Motors, you “work for” General Motors. Hataraku 働く cannot be used in this sense. Tsutomete-iru 勤めている (see TSUTOMERU) is the correct word.
EXAMPLE:
(8) Kare wa Sonī ni tsutomete-iru.
彼はソニーに勤めている。
He works for Sony. (lit., He is employed at Sony.)
Hayai 速い fast; 早い early
Hayai means both “fast,” as in sentence (1), and “early,” as in (2).
EXAMPLES:
(1) Jidōsha wa jitensha yori hayai.
自動車は自転車より速い。
Automobiles are faster than bicycles.
(2) Hayakawa-san wa okiru no ga hayai.
早川さんは起きるのが早い。
Mr. Hayakawa gets up early.
These two meanings of hayai, however, require two different kanji. In the sense of “fast, quick, speedy,” hayai is usually written 速い hayai, while in the sense of “early,” it is always written 早い hayai.
Although context usually makes the meaning quite clear, the word could be ambiguous in some cases, as in
EXAMPLE:
(3) hayai basu
早いバス
a fast (or early) bus
This ambiguity can be avoided, however, by the use of other expressions.
EXAMPLES:
(4) supīdo ga hayai basu
スピードが速いバス
a fast bus (lit., a bus whose speed is fast)
(5) asa hayai basu
朝早いバス
an early morning bus
Hayaru はやる to become fashionable; to become popular
Hayaru はやる is most normally used with reference to fads and fashions, as in
EXAMPLES:
(1a) Konogoro Nihon de wa donna heasutairu ga hayatte-imasu ka.
このごろ日本ではどんなヘアスタイルがはやっていますか。
What hairstyle is fashionable in Japan these days?
(1b) Furafūpu ga hayatta no wa nanjū-nen mo mae no koto datta.
フラフープがはやったのは何十年も前のことだった。
It was decades ago that hula hoops were the rage.
Hayaru はやる could be used about infectious diseases, too.
EXAMPLE:
(2) Fuyu ni naru to, itsumo iya na kaze ga hayaru.
冬になると、いつもいやな風邪がはやる。
Every winter nasty colds become rampant.
Hayaru はやる also means “to become popular,” as in
EXAMPLE:
(3) Ano mise wa hayatte-iru rashii.
あの店ははやっているらしい。
That store seems popular.
You can talk about a kind of art, such as a type of music and a particular literary genre, as being hayatte-iru はやっている, but you cannot talk about a particular person being hayatteiru はやっている. For a person being popular, ninki ga aru 人気がある is used instead.
EXAMPLES:
(4a) Bītoruzu no ongaku wa rokujū-nendai ni zuibun hayatte-ita (or ninki ga atta).
ビートルズの音楽は六十年代にずいぶんはやっていた（人気があった）。
The Beatles’ music was very popular in the 60s.
(4b) Ronarudo Rēgan wa nakanaka ninki no aru (not *hayatte-iru はやっている) daitōryō datta.
ロナルド・レーガンはなかなか人気のある大統領だった。
Ronald Reagan was a pretty popular president.
Although both hayatte-ita はやっていた and ninki ga atta 人気があった are acceptable in (4a) above, there is a difference in connotation. Hayatte-ita はやっていた connotes that the Beatles’ music was prevalent, i.e., everywhere you went, you heard it, whereas ninki ga atta 人気があった simply means their music was popular, i.e., it was well-liked by a large number of people.
Hayaru はやる also connotes “fashionable, prevalent, or popular over a limited length of time.” In the following sentence, therefore, hayatte-iru はやっている is inappropriate and should be replaced by ninki ga aru 人気がある because the sentence is about an almost timeless situation.
EXAMPLE:
(5) Amerika-eiga wa Nihon de Nihon-eiga yori ninki ga aru (not *hayatte-iru はやってい る).
アメリカ映画は日本で日本映画より人気がある。
American films are more popular than Japanese ones in Japan.
If you used hayatte-iru はやっている in this case, it would indicate that the phenomenon is just a temporary fad, which certainly is far from the fact. (See also NINKI and SAKAN.)
Hazukashii はずかしい ashamed, shameful, shy, embarrassed, embarrassing
The Japanese sense of morality is shame oriented while the Western counterpart is sin oriented, so say a number of scholars including Ruth Benedict, author of The Chrysanthemum and the Sword. It is probably true. Japanese speakers certainly use the word hazukashii は ずかしい very frequently.
EXAMPLES:
(1) Musuko ga hen na koto o shite hazukashii.
息子が変な事をしてはずかしい。
I am ashamed that my son behaved so strangely.
(2) Aitsu wa hazukashii yatsu da.
あいつは、はずかしいやつだ。
He is a shameful scoundrel.
(3) Ano ko wa hazukashii rashikute koko e ki-tagaranai.
あの子は、はずかしいらしくてここへ来たがらない。
That child apparently feels shy; he doesn’t want to come out here.
“Ashamed” and “shy” are two entirely different adjectives in English, but in Japanese hazukashii はずかしい takes care of both. Obviously, in the Japanese speaker’s mind, being ashamed and being shy have something in common. A person who feels ashamed does not wish to face others. The same holds true with a shy person.
Hē? へえ Really?
Hē? へえ expresses mild suprise and disbelief in response to someone’s remark, as in the following dialogue.
EXAMPLE:
(1) A: Tanaka no yatsu Tōdai ni ukatta n datte sa.
田中のやつ東大に受かったんだってさ。
Did you hear Tanaka was accepted by the University of Tokyo?
B: Hē? Tanaka ga?
へえ？田中が？
Really? Tanaka was?
Hē? へえ sounds informal and perhaps should be replaced in polite speech by E? え, which may be used in both informal and polite speech.
EXAMPLE:
| (2) Male teacher: | Tanaka Tōdai ni ukatta sō da yo. 田中東大に受かったそうだよ。 Did you hear Tanaka was accepted by the University of Tokyo? |
| Male student: | E? Tanaka ga? え？田中が？ What? Tanaka was? |
The difference between Hē? へえ and E? え, however, is that the latter expresses only surprise (probably less mildly than Hē? へえ) and not disbelief.
There is another interjection, Hō? ほう, which may be used in either informal or polite speech and indicates mild surprise like Hē? へえ, but without the connotation of disbelief.
EXAMPLE:
(3) A: Uchi no musuko ga okagesama de Tōdai ni ukarimashita.
うちの息子がおかげさまで東大に受かりました。
My son was fortunately accepted by the University of Tokyo.
B: Hō? Sore wa subarashii desu ne.
ほう？それはすばらしいですね。
By God! How wonderful!
Hō? ほう is usually used by middle-aged or old people. As seen in (3) above, it often carries a sense of admiration.
Finally, Hē? へえ and Hō? ほう are both pronounced with a mild rising intonation at the end, while E? え is pronounced with a jerky rising intonation.
Henji 返事 answer
Henji 返事 is a noun meaning “answer, reply.” Most often it refers to the act of saying Hai はい when one’s name is called, as in sentence (1), or the act of writing a reply to a letter, as in (2).
EXAMPLES:
(1) “Tanaka-san!” to yonda no ni henji ga nakatta.
「田中さん」と呼んだのに返事がなかった。
I called out, “Mr. Tanaka!” but there was no answer.
(2) Tegami o morattara sugu henji o dasu koto ni shite-iru.
手紙をもらったらすぐ返事を出すことにしている。
I make it a rule to write a reply as soon as I receive a letter.
In sentence (1) above, henji 返事 is synonymous with kotae 答え, which also means “answer,” but in sentence (2), henji 返事 cannot be replaced by kotae 答え.
As a variation of sentence (1) above, henji 返事 might refer to the act of responding to a knock on the door or to a doorbell by saying Hai! はい!
EXAMPLE:
(3) Nokku o shitara (or Yobirin o narashitara) “Hai!” to henji ga atta.
ノックしたら（呼び鈴を鳴らしたら）「はい」と返事があった。
When I knocked on the door (or rang the doorbell), someone answered, “Coming!”
Henji 返事 cannot be used to mean “answering the telephone.” The verb deru 出る would have to be used.
EXAMPLE:
