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1 1. These opening paragraphs were inspired by Thomas Labbé’s recent major work of scholarship, Les Catastrophes naturelles au Moyen Âge. Paris: CNRS, 2017, pp. 185, 188.

2 2. Petrarch, Letters on Familiar Matters, vol. 1, tr. Aldo S. Bernardo. New York: Italica, 2005, p. 245.

3 3. Jean Delumeau, La Peur en Occident, XIVe–XVIIIe siècle: Une cité assiégée. Paris: Fayard, 1978.

4 4. Labbé, Les Catastrophes naturelles, pp. 294–5.

5 5. The importance of signs of catastrophe is highlighted by Thomas Labbé and by Philippe Bénéton, whose study of Niccolò Massimo (Niccolò Massimo: Essai sur l’art d’écrire de Machiavel. Paris: Cerf, 2018) focuses at length on the importance of disasters as signs in Machiavelli’s Florence (ibid., pp. 66–7), quoting a chapter from his Florentine Histories (VI-34) mentioning a terrifying tornado in 1456.

6 6. Henri Brémond, Histoire littéraire du sentiment religieux en France [1916–1932]. Paris: Armand Colin, 1969. We will return to natural theology throughout the present book.

7 7. Translator’s note: the word ‘catastrophe’ had been used in the modern sense in English since the 1530s.

8 8. The following pages draw on two books crucial to our understanding of the disaster: Grégory Quenet, Les Tremblements de terre aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles: La naissance d’un risque. Seyssel: Champ Vallon, 2005; and Anne-Marie Mercier-Faivre and Chantal Thomas (eds.), L’Invention de la catastrophe au XVIIIe siècle: Du châtiment divin au désastre naturel. Geneva: Droz, 2008.

9 9. Mercier-Faivre and Thomas, L’Invention de la catastrophe au XVIIIe siècle, p. 8.

10 10. Quenet, Les Tremblements de terre aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, p. 358.

11 11. On how information about the disaster spread, see Anna Saada, ‘Le désir d’informer: le tremblement de terre de Lisbonne’, in Mercier-Faivre and Thomas, L’Invention de la catastrophe au XVIIIe siècle, pp. 209–30.

12 12. Quenet, Les Tremblements de terre aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, p. 367.

13 13. Muriel Brot, ‘La vision matérialiste de Diderot’, in Mercier-Faivre and Thomas, L’Invention de la catastrophe au XVIIIe siècle, pp. 75–91.

14 14. Quenet, Les Tremblements de terre aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, p. 348.