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Jean-François Dubut, Small Louis XV writing desk (from a pair) violin-shaped, close view of the feet in gilt bronze. Archives of the Didier Aaron Gallery, Paris.

The furniture of the Middle Ages must be divided into two different categories. The most important examples are evidently those for religious use. Where else should the greatest splendour of art be exhibited than in the house of the Almighty? Were not the workmen established in monastic houses specially bound to devote all of their energies to the adornment of the Church? History proves it is amongst the choir stalls where masterpieces of art and the ornaments of the sacristy must be sought.

However, we will dwell but little on this branch of furniture, which diverges slightly from the specialty of this study. It will be sufficient for us to point out the pieces in our museums which exhibit its characteristics. First, we will mention the sumptuous sacristy sideboard, preserved in the Musée de Cluny, taken from the church of Saint-Pol-de-Léon. Its triple-staged construction, the lace-like delicacy of its pierced canopies, its panels which hold the arms of France, Brittany, and those of a donor stand in relief; its beautiful locks of wrought iron, decorated with emblazoned woodwork bearing the same arms as the panels, make it one of the most interesting specimens of the cabinet work of the 15th century. A no less important piece of the same period is the carved woodwork forming the railing of one of the chapels of the church in Augerolles (Puy-de-Dôme). We should also mention a large refectory bench with the arms of France, probably taken from some royal abbey, and here we will stop on the threshold of the Renaissance when religious and secular furniture become assimilated.

To discover the remnants of the latter, we must search manorial homes. The first craftsmen employed in the construction of various containers of all sizes destined to contain and transport an individual’s property were simply carpenters. It is interesting to review the various terms which have served to qualify this primitive style of furniture. The bahut was originally a covering made of leather or wicker and used to contain and protect a large box, in which other smaller boxes were lodged. Through the course of time, the name passed from the covering to the box itself, and served to designate even armoires and jewel boxes. The coffer is subject to a still greater number of variations; it is often confused with the bahut, or chest, and becomes synonymous with trunk, casket, and moving, particularly when considering its capaciousness. A very large coffer was used as a receptacle for other, smaller boxes when on a journey, and at home its interior served the same purpose as today’s armoires. It was also used as a seat, and even as a table. As for the smaller chests or caskets, they varied as much in shape as in material, and those made of gold, silver, precious woods, chased or enamelled copper played an important part in the elegant life and the splendour of the Middle Ages. The custom of locking not only valuable jewels, but also cash in coffers caused the name to be adopted to express the finances of king or state.

Sideboard, late 16th century. Golden walnut wood.

The hutch is, again, another type of coffer or bahut, sometimes called arche, huceau, hucheau, huchel, and buffet. The hucheau was not as large as the huche, and nothing enables us to distinguish whether the other varieties of the name indicated a difference of form or use.

To return to our primitive workmen, the carpenters naturally held art as a secondary rank. Solidity, it may well be imagined, was the first qualification for these chests, which were destined for frequent journeys on the back of powerful sumpter horses, to circulate through the winding staircases and narrow passages of the feudal towers, and bear the weight of those who used them as a seat. Accordingly, one of the most ancient decorations consisted in the application of complicated iron mounts, which added strength to skilfully fashioned woods. The Musée Carnavalet of Paris possesses one of these coffers, iron-bound in the same way and perhaps by the same hand as the celebrated entrance doors of Notre Dame de Paris, one of the masterpieces of the 18th century.

From the close of the 11th century, however, the necessity of embellishing with ornaments in relief became understood and such objects were constantly placed within sight. This was required in order to create a greater harmony with the splendour of hangings and dress. They even went farther by covering broad surfaces with gold backgrounds, embellished by paintings. In the following century elegance of form came into consideration. It ushered rounded wood into the construction of furniture, and then in the 13th century the grounds were ornamented with sculptures of low relief.

During these two centuries, however, furniture remained within very narrow limits. As we have just observed, hutches and bahuts constituted its basis having clothing, linen, valuables, and money as their main consignment. The bed came next, then the chair of the master of the house, high-backed benches, some stools, the cabinet, which was moveable and permitted circulation around it for the convenience of service, and the sideboard in the form of a shelf, on which tablecloths were spread at meals, and the most valuable plates were laid out on the narrow shelves which rose in steps at the back. The beds were surrounded with curtains suspended by a system of cords, and the larger pieces of furniture were ornamented with portable cushions and Saracenic carpets.

Octagonal table, c. 1480–1500. Oak wood, 75 × 90.5 × 79 cm. Musée de Cluny, Paris.

The 13th century, while bringing more advanced developmental tools, also caused a separation amongst the workmen specially employed in the construction of furniture, who thenceforth were divided into two different classes: carpenters and joiners. The first applied themselves solely to massive works; the others, advancing further and further into the domain of art, became assimilated with the ymaigiers or sculptors themselves. They traced flowery patterns with elegant scrolls of foliage on the pliant wood to form the framework of personages and scenes from sacred or profane history, or else representing in Gothic or square compartments subjects of fables or legendary songs.

In the 14th century and early years of the 15th, elegant luxury was primarily displayed in rich fabrics and tapestries made to cover furniture, seats and benches. The flowing draperies of the beds partook of this taste, which originated with the Crusades, and was initially inspired by the sight of the magnificent fabrics of the East. Sculpture, nevertheless, continued its progress, and even Italian woodwork began to show Oriental derivation.

In the 15th century, the appearance of a bedroom is thus represented. The curtains of the bedstead are tied back in order to display its costly coverlets; on one side sits the master’s chair, then the devotional picture or small domestic altar attached to the wall. The armoire and other small pieces of furniture were arranged around the room, and often in front of an immense fireplace was a high-backed seat where one came to seek warmth. This arrangement, which can be seen in miniatures and tapestries taken from various sources, proves the uniformity of lifestyles in the different classes of society. Here we find figures whose dress and elegance denote their high position; here, again, are plain citizens surrounded by their serving men and a number of objects which allow us to judge that the room is in one moment the bedroom, the reception room in another, and also the family refectory. If we enter the study of a statesman or writer, we find the monumental high-backed chair, a revolving desk with a turning wheel intended to keep a number of books close within reach, lecterns, and various other types of desks for writing.

This age also corresponds with the complete expansion of Gothic architecture and furniture. The furniture is divided into flamboyant Gothic cloisters, crowned by fine needle-shaped sticks and flourishing leaves; their niches contain elegantly quaint figures, and the panels, with their bas-reliefs, rival the perfection of altarpieces and religious triptychs of intricate workmanship. Accordingly, no part of these articles of furniture was covered so that the artist’s ingenious conceptions could be easily viewed, unless a covering was absolutely necessary. Much of this furniture served only for luxurious display, while that which was destined for travelling remained simple in form and was modestly concealed in those parts of the dwelling reserved for private life.

We will not extend this brief sketch any further, for, from the 16th century, both public and private life is pictured in so large a number of monuments, paintings, tapestries, engravings and manuscripts that it would be superfluous to attempt an analysis essentially colourless beside the originals. Now, rather than study furniture as a whole, we will view it broken down into genre so as to show its progress, connections and appreciate its styles in their successive transformations.

“Joinville” sideboard, c. 1524. Carved wood, 144 cm. Castle of Écouen, Musée national de la Renaissance.

“Harpys” sideboard, c. 1560–1570. Carved wood, 147 cm. Castle of Écouen, Musée national de la Renaissance.