Читать книгу The Triumph of Profiling - Andreas Bernard - Страница 12

All references to online sources were last checked on September 3, 2018.1 Richard Bélanger et al., “U-Shaped Association Between Intensity of Internet Use and Adolescent Health,” Pediatrics 127 (2011), 330–5, at 334. For further discussion related to this debate, see the anonymous article “The Mystery of Aurora Suspect's Missing Facebook Account," cnet.com/news/the-mystery-of-aurora-suspects-missing-facebook-account; and Christoph David Piorkowski, “Spurlos im Netz: Wer sich Facebook verweigert, macht sich verdächtig,” Süddeutsche Zeitung (December 21, 2012), 13.2 Danah Boyd and Jeffrey Heer, “Profiles as Conversation: Networked Identity Performance on Friendster,” in Proceedings of the 39th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (Los Alamitos: IEEE Computer Society, 2006), n.p. See also Danah Boyd, “Friendster and Publicly Articulated Social Networks,” in CHI 2004 – Connect: Conference Proceedings (New York: ACM Press, 2004), n.p.; and Danah Boyd and Judith Donath, “Public Displays of Connection,” BT Technology Journal 22 (2004), 71–82, at 72. These references to Boyd's essays – as well as references to other works relating to the history of the profile – were brought to my attention by Andreas Weich, whose dissertation on the history of the profile is due to be published shortly. For an overview of some of his findings, see Andreas Weich, “Sich profilieren und profiliert werden: Über zwei Seiten einer Medaille,” in Profile: Interdisziplinäre Beiträge, ed. Martin Degeling et al. (Lüneburg: Meson Press, 2017), 37–57.3 Boyd and Donath, “Public Displays of Connection,” 74.4 Boyd and Heer, “Profiles as Conversation,” n.p.5 Eric Partridge and Henry C. Wyld, eds., Webster Universal Dictionary: Unabridged International Edition (New York: Harver, 1968), s.v. ‘profile’ (p. 1163).6 Rossolimo's study was never translated into English. The quotation here is translated from the German edition: G. I. Rossolimo, Das psychologische Profil und andere experimentell-psychologische, individuale und kollektive Methoden zur Prüfung der Psychomechanik bei Erwachsenen und Kindern (Halle an der Saale: C. Marhold, 1926), 8.7 Karl Bartsch, Das psychologische Profil und seine Auswertung für Heilpädagogik: Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der psychischen Funktionen des normalen und abnormalen Kindes, 2nd edn. (Halle an der Saale: C. Marhold, 1926), 3.8 The quotations are from ibid., 60, 73; and Fritz Giese, Psychotechnisches Praktikum (Halle an der Saale: Wendt & Klauwell, 1923), 40.9 Louis Gold, “The Psychiatric Profile of the Firesetter,” Journal of Forensic Sciences 7 (1962), 404–17. On the “mad bomber” and the role that psychoanalysis played in solving the case, see James Brussel, The Casebook of a Crime Psychiatrist (New York: Grove Press, 1968).10 Richard Ault and James Reese, “A Psychological Assessment of Crime: Profiling,” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 49 (1980), 22–5, at 22.11 Russel Vorpagel, “Painting Psychological Profiles: Charlatanism, Coincidence, Charisma, Chance, or a New Science?” The Police Chief 3 (1982), 156–9, at 156.12 Ault and Reese, “A Psychological Assessment of Crime,” 24. For a highly similar list, see Vorpagel, “Painting Psychological Profiles,” 159.13 Gold, “The Psychiatric Profile of the Firesetter,” 404, 416.14 Ault and Reese, “A Psychological Assessment of Crime,” 25.15 Anthony Rider, “The Firesetter: A Psychological Profile,” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 49 (July 1980), 7–17, at 7.16 On the number of cases in the United States, see Vorpagel, “Painting Psychological Profiles,” 159. Regarding the first criminal profile in Germany, see Cornelia Musolff, “Täterprofile und Fallanalyse: Eine Bestandaufnahme,” in Täterprofile bei Gewaltverbrechen: Mythos, Theorie und Praxis des Profilings, ed. Cornelia Musolff and Jens Hoffmann (Heidelberg: Springer, 2006), 1–23, at 12.17 On the history of registering psychiatric patients and on the development of documentary practices in various hospitals during the nineteenth century, see Ali-Reza Ipektschi, “Ärztliche Aufzeichnungen über Patienten im Allgemeinen Krankenhause in Hamburg in der Zeit von 1823–1888” (doctoral diss.: Universität Hamburg, 1983); Brigitte Bernet, “Der Fall des psychiatrischen Formulars,” in Zum Fall machen, zum Fall werden: Wissensproduktion und Patientenerfahrung in Medizin und Psychiatrie des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts, ed. Sibylle Brändli et al. (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 2009), 62–91; Volker Hess, “Formalisierte Beobachtung: Die Genese der modernen Krankenakte am Beispiel der Berliner und Pariser Medizin,” Medizinhistorisches Journal 45 (2010), 293–340; and Sophie Ledebur, “Schreiben und Beschreiben: Zur epistemischen Funktion von psychiatrischen Krankenakten, ihre Archivierung und deren Übersetzung in Fallgeschichten,” Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte 34 (2011), 102–24.18 J. C. Lavater, Von der Physiognomik (Leipzig: Weidmann, 1772), 63. This early work on physiognomy, which has not been translated into English, is distinct from Lavater's more comprehensive treatment of the subject, which appeared in multiple English editions under the title Essays on Physiognomy.19 Alphonse Bertillon, La photographie judiciare avec un appendice sur la classification et l'identification anthropométrique (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1890), 17.20 Here one could add yet a third level of meaning to the concept, which concerns the grooved or “profile” bicycle tires first patented by Dunlop or Palmer in 1880. In the Sherlock Holmes story “The Adventure of the Priory School,” it is the interpretation of these peculiar treads near the crime scene that sets the detective on the right track toward finding the missing pupil. At one point in the investigation, Holmes remarks: “I am familiar with forty-two different impressions left by tyres.” Quoted from Arthur Conan Doyle, “The Adventure of the Priory School,” in The Return of Sherlock Holmes (New York: A. Wessels, 1907), 119–58, at 136.21 For a screenshot of Match.com's homepage from 1995, see Mia de Graaf, “‘I Was Trying to Find the Right Person to Marry’: Match.com Co-Founder Reveals the Inspiration of Online Dating Site as It Goes Public,” Daily Mail (November 19, 2015): www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3324447/I-trying-right-person-marry-Match-com-founder-reveals-inspiration-online-dating-site-goes-public.html. The quotation of the 1996 advertisement was taken from a web page that is no longer active: kremen.com/wp-content/uploads/fi les/019_WEBSIGHT_0996_MATCH_AD.PDF. For a report about using the site, see Leslie Crawford, “Geek Love,” San Francisco Focus (October, 1996), 20: “You simply post your profile on-line and wait for the on-line love letters.”22 See Eva Illouz, Cold Intimacies: The Making of Emotional Capitalism (Cambridge: Polity, 2007), 74–114; and Illouz, Why Love Hurts: A Sociological Explanation (Cambridge: Polity, 2012), 198–237.23 See youtube.com/watch?v=MzE2cOqUFWM, at the 2:20 mark.24 Older online communities such as WELL (“Whole Earth 'Lectronic Link”), which was founded in California in 1985, did not make use of the profile format. Members dialed in with a user name and password and could comb through various thematically arranged sites and post comments. See Howard Rheingold, The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier, 2nd edn. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), 1–24; and Fred Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Steward Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism (University of Chicago Press, 2008), 141–74.25 Andrew Weinreich, “Method and Apparatus for Constructing a Networking Database and System,” United States Patent No. US6175831 (1997). The patent can be read online at www.google.com/patents/US6175831.26 See Teresa Riordan, “Idea for Online Networking Brings Two Entrepreneurs Together,” New York Times (December 1, 2003): www.nytimes.com/2003/12/01/technology/technology-media-patents-idea-for-online-networking-brings-two-entrepreneurs.html. Reid Hoffmann, who is still the president of LinkedIn, has remained the owner of this patent ever since.27 Weinreich, “Method and Apparatus for Constructing a Networking Database and System,” n.p.28 The idea first appeared in a short story titled “Chain-Links” by the Hungarian author Frigyes Karinthy.29 These works have not been translated into English. Their original German titles are, respectively, Souverän im Vorstellungsgespräch, Erfolgreich im Assessment-Center, and Das große Bewerbungshandbuch.30 Christian Püttjer and Uwe Schnierda, Anschreiben und Lebensläufe für Hochschulabsolventen (Felde am Westensee: Sit-Up Verlag, 1999).31 Among others, the following books have appeared in various editions: Die Bewerbungsmappe mit Profil für Führungskräfte [“The Job-Application Portfolio with a Profile for Executives”], Die Bewerbungsmappe mit Profil für Hochschulabsolventen (mit Insiderkommentaren) [“The Job-Application Portfolio with a Profile for College Graduates (with Insider Commentary)”], Das große Bewerbungshandbuch (mit Püttjer & Schnierda-Profil-Methode) [“The Definitive Job-Application Handbook (with the Püttjer & Schnierda Profile Method)”], 20 perfekte Bewerbungen mit Profil [“Twenty Perfect Job Applications with a Profile”], Die Bewerbungsmappe mit Profil für Um- und Aufsteiger [“The Job-Application Portfolio with a Profile for Those Seeking to Transfer Jobs or Earn a Promotion”], Vorstellungsgespräch: Vorbereiten, überzeugen, gewinnen (mit Pütter & Schnierda-Profil-Methode) [“Interviews: Prepare, Persuade, Succeed (with the Püttjer & Schnierda Profile Method)”].32 Püttjer provided me with this information in a telephone interview conducted on January 26, 2017.33 Christian Püttjer and Uwe Schnierda, Das große Bewerbungshandbuch, 2nd edn. (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 2006), 25.34 Christian Püttjer and Uwe Schnierda, Das gelungene Online-Bewerbung (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 2001), 85; Püttjer and Schnierda, Das große Bewerbungshandbuch, 20.35 Püttjer and Schnierda, Das große Bewerbungshandbuch, 25.36 See, for example, Püttjer and Schnierda, Anschreiben und Lebensläufe für Hochschulabsolventen, 79; and Püttjer and Schnierda, Das große Bewerbungshandbuch, 18, 220.37 The term “user profile,” for instance, can be found in demographic analyses as early as the 1970s. See Janpeter Kob et al., Profil der Benutzer öffentlicher Bibliotheken (Berlin: Deutscher Bibliotheksverband, 1973).38 See, for instance, John Burnett and Alan Bush, “Profiling the Yuppies,” Journal of Advertising Research 26 (1986), 27–35.39 Andreas Wenzlau et al., KundenProfiling: Die Methode zur Neukundenakquise (Erlangen: Publicis, 2003), 17–18 (emphasis original).40 See “Using Information from User Video Game Interactions to Target Advertisements,” United States Patent No. WO 2007041371 A3 (2007). Regarding the implications of this method, see Helmut Martin-Jung, “Verhaltensforschung,” Süddeutsche Zeitung (May 15, 2007), 1. The patent can be viewed online at https://www.google.com/patents/WO2007041371A3?cl=en.41 Petra Wittig, “Die datenschutzrechtliche Problematik der Anfertigung von Persönlichkeitsprofilen,” Recht der Datenverarbeitung 16 (2000), 61–9, at 62. In this passage, Wittig is in part citing the opinion of another lawyer.42 Christoph Schnabel, Datenschutz bei profilbasierten Location Based Services: Die datenschutzadäquate Gestaltung von Service-Plattformen für Mobilkommunikation (Kassel University Press, 2009), 172, 171.43 “Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the Protection of Natural Persons with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, and Repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation)” (2016): http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32016R0679, §71, §60, respectively.44 Ibid., §18.45 Schnabel, Datenschutz bei profilbasierten Location Based Services, 177. In terms of privacy law, one of the first studies to discuss the coexistence of unwittingly and actively created profiles is Louis Specht, Konsequenzen der Ökonomisierung informationeller Selbstbestimmung: Die zivilrechtliche Erfassung des Datenhandels (Cologne: Heymann, 2012).46 Michal Kosinski et al., “Our Twitter Profiles, Ourselves: Predicting Personality with Twitter,” in IEEE Third International Conference on Social Computing (Los Alamitos: IEEE Computer Society, 2011), 180–5.47 Michal Kosinski et al., “Private Traits and Attributes Are Predictable from Digital Records of Human Behavior,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111 (2013), 5802–5, at 5802. See also the project's website at http://mypersonality.org/wiki/doku.php.48 Kosinski et al., “Private Traits and Attributes,” 5802.49 Kosinski et al., “Our Twitter Profiles,” 185 (emphasis original).50 Quoted from Alexander Nix, “The Power of Big Data and Psychographics in the Electoral Process,” a presentation delivered at the 2016 Concordia Summit. The presentation can be viewed on YouTube at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n8Dd5aVXLCc, and the citation here is taken from the 4:04 mark. For a discussion of Cambridge Analytica's methods, see Hannes Grassegger and Mikael Krogerus, “Ich habe nur gezeigt, dass es die Bombe gibt,” Das Magazin 48/3 (December 3, 2016): https://www.dasmagazin.ch/2016/12/03/ich-habe-nur-gezeigt-dass-es-die-bombe-gibt.51 Sherry Turkle, Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 185.52 Ibid.53 Sherry Turkle, “Constructions and Reconstructions of Self in Virtual Reality: Playing in the MUDS,” Mind, Culture, and Activity 1 (1994), 158–67, at 164 (emphasis original).54 Rheingold, The Virtual Community, 149.55 John Perry Barlow, “A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace,” Electronic Frontier Foundation (February 8, 1996): https://www.eff.org/cyberspace-independence.56 Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, 162.57 Ibid., 117.58 Barlow, “A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace,” n.p.59 Quoted from https://www.facebook.com/legal/terms.60 David Kirkpatrick, The Facebook Effect: The Inside Story of the Company that Is Connecting the World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010), 100.61 Ibid., 199.62 Ibid., 210.