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1.“Anarchy” is here defined in reference to the absence of a coherent global governance system able to regulate global affairs through an effective enforcement mechanism. See Buzan and Little, “Reconceptualizing Anarchy.”

2.In this book, “state” and “statehood” will be defined in reference to the Westphalian state in accordance with the international law tradition, revolving around territorial integrity and sovereignty—arguably two features that cause friction with the changing concept of statehood in the early twenty-first century. We chose the Westphalian tradition so as to depict the dichotomy of this concept of statehood with the reality of transnationalism in the new millennium.

3.For security assemblages, see Abrahamsen and Williams, Security beyond the State, 91.

4.See Beck, World Risk Society.

5.Clausewitz, On War, 83.

6.Gross, Meisels, and Walzer, Soft War, 1–3.

7.Singer and Emerson, Like War.

8.“Surrogate,” Oxford English Dictionary, www.oed.com.

9.Smith, “Surrogate Warfare in the 21st Century,” 40.

10.Krieg, “Externalizing the Burden of War,” 99.

11.Mumford, Proxy Warfare, 1.

12.Lacey, “Conquering Germania.”

13.Singer, Corporate Warriors, 22.

14.Atwood, Hessians.

15.Boot, Invisible Armies, 82.

16.Ferris, “Small Wars and Great Games,” 201.

17.Mansoor, “Introduction: Hybrid Warfare in History,” 4.

18.See Aid, Intel Wars, 132.

19.Deutsch, “External Involvement in Internal War,” 102.

20.Maurer, Cyber Mercenaries, 16.

21.See Huber, “Compound Warfare.”

22.Bar-Siman-Tov, “Strategy of War by Proxy,” 269.

23.See Moran, Remote Warfare.

24.See Krieg and Rickli, “Surrogate Warfare.” “Mediatization” refers to a process in which the reality of social and political institutions are increasingly shaped or directed by mass media. War itself has become highly shaped by the impact of mass media. See Gianpietro Mazzoleni and Winfried Schulz, “‘Mediatization’ of Politics: A Challenge for Democracy?,” Political Communication 16, no. 3 (1999): 247–61.

25.Clausewitz, On War, 515.

26.Abrahamsen and Williams, Security beyond the State, 91.

27.Bacevich, “Autopilot Wars.”

28.Krieg, “Externalizing the Burden of War.”

29.Stewart and Ali, “U.S. Strikes Cripple.”

30.Allison Quinn, “Vladimir Putin Sent Russian Mercenaries to ‘Fight in Syria and Ukraine,’” The Telegraph, March 30, 2016, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/03/30/vladimir-putin-sent-russian-mercenaries-to-fight-in-syria-and-uk/.

31.SecDev, “Russian Private Military Contractors.”

32.Tsvetkova, “Russian Toll in Syria Battle.”

33.Gerber and Mendelson, “Casualty Sensitivity”; Nathaliya Vasilyeva, “Thousands of Russian Private Contractors Fighting in Syria,” Washington Post, December 12, 2017.

34.Author interview with a navy special operations forces commander of the Nigerian Armed Forces, Shrivenham, UK, May 19, 2017.

35.See Barlow, “Rise, Fall, and Rise Again.”

36.Onuoha, “Resurgence of Militancy,” 4.

37.Bull, Anarchical Society.