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INTRODUCTION

I.1 ANCIENT TECHNOLOGIES

The gods of the Sun1 and Moon2 are often portrayed in attendance to The Medicine Buddha.3 Worship within the temple of the Medicine Buddha is said to be good for study of medicine and health. Shingon Mikkyō considers the Medicine Buddha to be secretive and hidden (mystical). He illuminates (like the Sun and Moon) only those that are worthy – yet his hand is outstretched showing he grants boons. Atharva Veda describes the removal of sickness via the use of this deity’s mantra and a certain black wood.

The Gods of Shingon Mikkyō by Sato Tamotsu

Although a number of ‘occult’ sciences remain intact into the 21st century, many have been lost or driven into semi-obscurity. Much of what is today called pseudo-science or ancient superstition had in the past important practical application. These ancient technologies were often melting pots of observable phenomena and ritual that when combined could be used to coerce Providence or the Fates to manifest a favourable outcome.

In the past there were quite literally necromancers, rain-makers, oracles, magicians and geomancers. Those skilled in these arts were consulted in all manner of undertakings, such as healthcare, childbirth, attainment of wealth, victory in war, love and longevity; and – most importantly – foreknowledge of events. In a world of uncertainty, the honouring and propitiation of nature and its emissaries (such as planets) were believed to answer the querent – if one was skilled enough to interpret their answers.

To the western mindset a term such as ‘ancient technology’ appears a little paradoxical, as it is mostly assumed that the ancients lived in a kind of ignorant bliss, only improving their situation with the advent of modern industrialised society. This myth is quickly dispelled by spending an afternoon roaming the galleries of any major museum and studying its exhibits. Closer analysis of cultural antiquity quickly reveals how little daily existence has really changed. Technologies employed in former eras were (in some ways) just as ingenious as those of our current time. Although deprived of iPhones, combustion engines and atom bombs,4 the ancients were able to combine surprising levels of sophistication, functionality and exquisite artistry5 – all of this from the most basic and most abundant of materials.

Knowledge is quite literally power, so technologies were at times held in check through the initiation6 process – knowledge transferable only through the master/disciple relationship. Such practices often included detailed instruction in the art of astronomy, martial arts, medicine, surgery, metallurgy, chemistry, geomancy and more. Astrology was one such important technology, eventually fused with alchemy, herbalism and geomancy – its remit touching every part of human existence.

I.2 ASTR-OLOGY

Some of mankind’s earliest religious works pay tribute to the stars, the Sun and the Moon. Astr-ology7 (in one form or another) is to be found in all ancient cultures. From occident8 to orient, the worship of planetary gods often presided over a nation’s prosperity and fertility.

Today many of the world’s ‘developed’ countries rest in a state of indifference toward astrology and, just to add complexity to an already elusive subject, the east–west interpretations of this subject diverged some 1500 years ago,9 having gone their separate ways over the course of time.

Though essentially rooted in the same star-pool, alternative astrological schools (such as Greek, Roman, Persian and later Arabic10) imprinted their own interpretations upon the constellations and planets, eventually culminating in what today could be called Western Astrology. This specialisation of astrology was largely precipitated by different cultural beliefs – however, dislocation of the western zodiac was caused by a phenomenon known as precession, a technical term used to describe the Sun’s apparent backward movement through the signs of the zodiac. Observable only over long periods, precession was perhaps understood by Indian astronomers (by inference) but is more broadly accepted as an earlier Greek discovery.11

Meticulous cataloguing of the Sun’s position along the ecliptic revealed it to be in a state of slow precession, shifting its stellar background at a rate of approximately 50 arc seconds yearly. Over a period of some 2160 years12 this creeping motion traverses a full zodiacal sign (30°). Over the course of 25,920 years the Sun completes an entire lap of the zodiac. Any use of compensatory calculations allowing for this solar motion is said to favour a sidereal zodiac, that is to say, it is based upon the fixity of stars, preserving a secure reference point from which to commence the zodiac. Conversely, calculation based on the Sun’s current position (at the spring equinox), marking the zodiac’s starting point, is said to favour a tropical zodiac, or – to put it another way – an astrology that is eternally tied to Earthly seasons.13

In light of the powerful and unique symbology associated with each of the twelve constellations (within which reside the zodiacal signs), it seems unlikely that a transitory zero degree would endure as a popular means of astrological calculation. This in effect leads to the displacement of one sign every 2160 years, eventually usurping all signs during one full precessionary cycle, also termed ‘A Great Year’. During this great year the Sun is effectively framed against every constellation and at every point is held to represent 0° Aries. Any system of astrological measurement that adheres to this methodology is based upon a tropical zodiac that gives precedence to the declination of the Sun – a kind of ‘Solar-ology’, if you will.

In our current century, discontinuity of sign and constellation is not so great, but for future generations the gap will inexorably widen. Tropical astrology has long acknowledged this fact, working now with an abstract zodiac that moves independently of the stars. It should also be noted here that, in its favour, the tropical model does provide a commonly agreed exactness of tropical degree as well as dispensing with the need to recalculate any accrued degrees of precession, which as we will see in Part I is far from being agreed upon.

In contrast to a tropical model, Jyotish is a sidereal astrology that aligns itself to the actual stars and therefore requires constant adjustment to counter the slow march of precession. Ayanāṃśa14 (the name given to its corrective value) may be applied to any tropical computation to rectify the stellar background to reflect its true state, for any time or date in question.

Astrology is a highly resilient and adaptive system (whichever variation one finds most favourable), managing to stay current to the needs of successive generations. Experimentation of techniques, particularly by those who favour the tropical model, has seen a strong infusion of Jyotish in the last decade. This in part has come from numerous written works on Jyotish by accomplished western astrologers, or those who have sought to enrich their predictive skills by integrating Jyotish.

Typically, many new Vedic recruits are drawn to the use of its lunar Nakshatras (see Chapter 26). Although there are rich lunar interpretations in oriental astrology,15 these are also to be found in the western tradition – although an intimate knowledge of their use and indications has withered over the centuries.16

I.3 JYOTISH

Jyotish might be translated as ‘science of starlight’ (or ‘knowledge of starlight’). India’s traditional astrology is but one of a number of profound Vedic sciences attempting to deal with the true nature of existence. There are references to various types of celestial phenomena, including planets and stars within the pages of the Vedas17 (India’s oldest writings). Whilst some of these texts detail astute astronomical observations, others delve deeply into the very fabric of the universe, often through the medium of astrology. Vedic texts make little distinction between astrology and astronomy, seeing each as an integral part of the whole. By providing a means to divine future events, honour the gods or confer appropriate times to perform sacrificial offerings, Jyotish often incurs the epithet ‘the eyes of the Vedas’; that is, a means by which we are able to see and comprehend what the Vedas attempt to reveal.

Any would-be student hungry for Vedic knowledge is first confronted by a study of its various limbs, known as Shadaṅgas. These six limbs are likened to parts of a living organism called Vedapuruṣa, each indispensable for the maintenance of the whole and each intimately connected. These are delineated as: eyes (Jyotish/vision), nose (Shiksha/phonetics), mouth (Vyakarana/word), ears (Nirukta/sound), hands (Kalpa/tactile) and feet (Chhanda/movement), all being essential components for any deeper understanding of its pansophy.

Like many aspects of Vedic wisdom, each part can be subjected to a series of subdivisions to further attenuate its focus. In the case of Jyotish it too is subjected to a series of subdivisions,18 described below.

Gola (observational astronomy)

A detailed study of spherical geometry, planets, stars, zodiacal signs and ecliptic. Gola19 primarily concerns itself with the accurate measurement and cataloguing of astronomical bodies with reference to the ecliptic and equatorial plane. It also concerns itself with retrograde planets, eclipse prediction and lunar nodes, planetary motion, comets, asteroids, sunspots and the variation of stellar luminosity. It also concerns itself with the construction of such devices that aid in the pursuit of these observations.

Gaṇita (calculation)

A subdivision of Gola forming the bedrock of calculation techniques contained in various Siddhântic material. Gaṇita is expressed through advanced mathematical formulae enabling an accurate prediction of celestial motion including: solar ingress of signs, rising and setting solar timetables, solstices, equinoxes, eclipses, calculation of ephemerides and calendars (both solar and lunar) and the positions of planets for the casting of horoscopes (Jataka).

Jataka/Horā (natal astrology)

Calculation of a horoscope using the person’s birth time and location. Jataka represents what most would recognise as astrology, that is, analysis of the heavens tied to one’s birth data. Jataka predicts probable life-events, relative to planetary placements, subdivisional charts (Vargas) or dasha periods (timing), and so on. Jataka is also an assessment of inherent, acquired or collective karma and the remedial techniques thereof, best suited to alleviate an individual’s suffering.

Prasna (questioning)

Also known as horary astrology, deals specifically with asking questions. Prasna means ‘questioning’. Prasna charts are usually erected at their moment of occurrence, or the time of the question is duly noted and consulted thereafter. The information contained in this snapshot of the heavens is then deciphered to answer the querent. Some astrologers may employ prasna charts if the birth data submitted is in question or the birth horoscope seems overly confusing or contradictory.

Mhurta (timing of events)

Also known as electional astrology, Mhurta means ‘moment’.20 This popular branch of Jyotish may be used to elect all manner of daily and yearly religious and social undertakings – from the laying of a foundation stone to a marriage. Mhurta is popular with some Āyurvedic pharmacies, both for the manufacturing and prescribing of medicines (Mhurta helping attune a remedy to specific ailment). Mhurta also helps elect an auspicious moment to attract the attention of a specific deity when hoping for a particular outcome.

Nimitta (omenology)

Perhaps one of the most interesting yet least accessible levels21 of Jyotish. It interprets portents on a minute-to-minute basis. A number of classic astrological works recount favourable or unfavourable omens delivered by such diverse messengers as flocking birds, baying hounds, wandering camels, ravens and the cries of a peacock. Omens were also forecast by the hue or obscuration of the luminaries (Sun and Moon). Other celestial events included lightning, meteors, eclipses and sunspots.

Jyotish refers to the planets22 as grahas, a word meaning to ‘grasp’ or ‘seize’. To the ancients these nine celestial wanderers were considered primary dispensers of Earthly karma.23 Individually these were: Sun (Sûrya), Moon (Chandra), Mercury (Budha), Venus (Shukra), Mars (Kuja), Jupiter (Brihaspati) and Saturn (Shani). In addition to the seven visible planets, two non-luminous planets were also considered, Rāhu and Ketu, referring to the north and south nodes of the Moon (see Chapter 24).

The Earth (and ultimately mankind) was perceived as occupying the epicentre of creation, with the stars, Moon and other planets revolving about us in their sequential distances. From closest to furthest these were Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and finally the Nakshatras (stars). The spherical mass of the Earth was buoyed up on Earthly air known as Bhūvāyu, suspended like a ball of iron between magnets while the planets were fastened about the pole star and driven eastwards on the pravaha wind.

This charting of the planets against their starry backdrop set the scene for great cosmic theatre, whose observation and decipherment proved an important tool with which to unlock the mysteries of the universe as well as gaining insights into an individual’s destiny. Through the medium of astrology it became possible to discern dosha (physical constitution), caste (social status), longevity, career, wealth and most importantly life purpose, known as dharma. India’s Rishis, or enlightened ones, were able to interpret the movements of the planets and stars into an art form, which might then be applied to all aspects of human existence.

Much like its sister sciences (Āyurveda, Yoga or Vāstu), Jyotish is a resplendent archive of carefully catalogued information, infused with elaborate ritual, mathematics and eloquent language. Any or all attempts to absorb the entirety of this astrological system might stretch into multiple lifetimes. As one convert from Western Astrology once jokingly put it to me, ‘You might comfortably squeeze the entirety of Western Astrology into a match box and set it afloat upon the ocean of Vedic Astrology.’ The book you now hold in your hands contents itself with being a primer that seeks only to introduce and popularise India’s premier science.

One of the best ways to study Jyotish is to become intimate with the planets, to understand their personalities, life-lessons and personal histories/planetary ages.24 Learning their stories allows each of them to converse with you. Once embraced, the planets take on a life of their own, no longer just glyphs inscribed within a geometric framework (the horoscope). Their positioning (for better or worse) and interactions start to offer up a wealth of information.

I.4 OVERVIEW

There remain innumerable ways to disseminate astrological knowledge, every teacher having their own methodology or expertise. One of my early tutors, also one with a strong mathematical inclination, used a simple counting strategy that ran roughly along the lines of:

1.individual planets

2.polarities, masculine/feminine, benefic/malefic, etc.

3.modes of sign expression, movable, fixed or dual

4.primary elements in astrology, Air, Fire, Water and Earth

and so on.

This book uses a similar tiered system, slowly building upon the information given in each section.

In Part I we ‘set up shop’ and consider some important prerequisites, one of which is the commencement of the zodiac (a controversial topic in itself but a highly important consideration). Here we take a closer look at the corrective calculation known as Ayanāṃśa. From here I introduce each of the planets through a series of planetary portraits, casting each as players in a grand celestial court and wherever possible trying to integrate the bedrock of this science, its rich and diverse mythologies.

Part II introduces the zodiac and the symbolism of the twelve signs, known as Rashi. We also consider the construction of horoscopes, some of the most popular designs, their application and strengths. Part II also looks at domification (or astrological houses) and the most popular method of dividing their space. This section also includes a study of significations (called Kārakas) for the twelve houses, as well as their combinations. This Part also dwells on the retrograde motion of planets, as well as the effects of solar combustion and planetary war.

Part III introduces medical astrology and its interaction with Āyurveda, India’s ‘complete’ and indigenous medical system. Here connections between planet and constitution (known as dosha) are explored along with character portraits of tridosha (Vāta, Pitta and Kapha), better known as the guardians of health. This Part also examines the science of taste and the impact of strengthened or weakened planets, their effects on metabolism and tissues, and so on. It also includes the use of divisional charts (called Vargas), planetary periods known as dashas and, finally, Dṛṣṭi (planetary aspects), the line of sight between the planets.

Part IV deals almost exclusivity to the Moon and its lunar mansions (known as Nakshatras). Jyotish considers Moon a ‘special planet’ and, as our nearest and dearest celestial companion, this entire section is given over to its motion, occultation, eclipsing lunar nodes and daily sojourn in the embraces of its 27 lunar brides.

Part V is dedicated to the propitiation of planets and remedial measures. Known as Upayes, we consider the use of yantra, gemstones, rudrākṣa beads, ceremonial offerings (pooja) and fire rituals, known as ahuti. We also explore Bali/Shanti Karma, elaborate planetary ceremonies performed in Śrī Laṇkā that aim to deflect the negative emissions of planets known as graha-apala.

There is no right or wrong way to learn Jyotish, there is only learning. With practice, experimentation and a little determination, Jyotish will start to reveal itself to you – becoming a kind of second nature. Any investment made in its deeper symbology will always reward. Its initial complexities, however daunting, will (over time) coalesce and harmonise, facilitating an open dialogue with the planets.

We begin therefore with a story – set in an age of seers, whose talents in the divination arts were unparalleled and unquestioned.

Legend of Varāhamihira

If the Sun should blacken its countenance or be variegated in colour, if animals and birds should fearfully howl toward the fall of the night, then death can be expected. If the Sun should be the colour of blood in the mid-heaven or should appear the deepest red, as if engulfed by a dust storm – then the reigning prince shall die.

Brihat Saṃhitā25 by Varāhamihira

King Vikramāditya26 of Ujjayinī27 summoned his Navaratnā28 enquiring as to the fate of his soon to be born son. The learned sages arrived at court from their places of study and prepared to face and answer their king. Mihira (court astrologer) having directed his observation to the planets, who were after all most auspicious for such revelations, was also among the entourage.

Now assembled, each delivered a unanimous verdict: ‘Excellency,’ each chorused, ‘I have considered your request in great earnestness in order that I might give answer to your question. It is therefore with deep regret that I inform you of an ill-fate which awaits the child: upon his sixteenth year of life, he will perish.’

Rising to his feet with graven look the king demanded the details of this fate. Why he asked, had such a curse fallen upon the royal household. Lowering their heads the sages replied, ‘Though we cannot say what sequence of events will lead to his death, we all agree the youth will meet his end by the assault of a wild beast.’

Knowing his advisors to be beyond reproach and implicitly trusting their collective wisdom, the king had no choice but to accept their verdict. The palace, he knew, bordered a wilderness from which did on occasion present some danger in the form of prowling animals. The royal court also enjoyed hunting in this wilderness; perhaps it was to be on one such foray that his son would meet his end?

He was about to dismiss the entourage when Mihira stepped forward and added, ‘Your majesty, I do not contradict these findings but would add that this beast will be a wild boar. Be aware, however, there can be no protection against the animal for the hand of fate aids it with supernatural qualities, striking without warning amidst a storm.’

The king gravely acknowledged these words, pondering his child’s cruel and yet ironic fate – to be slain by their royal insignia, which was that of a ferocious looking wild boar.29

The child grew and relished life at court, never restricted in his movements and greatly enjoying any foray into the wilderness to hunt. He was never observed to flinch in the face of danger.

It had long ago been decided that the youth’s fate be kept from him. If, reasoned the king, he was to be killed by a wild boar, he must live out his life unburdened by that knowledge.

Years passed and the prediction was somewhat forgotten, but as his sixteenth birthday drew near the predictions of the Navaratnā again returned to haunt the king, who now began a day and night vigil over the youth. If, reasoned the king, I were to keep the boy from harm’s way, perhaps he might be spared. With this thought in mind he slowly began to restrict the movement of the prince, curtailing any events which might bring his son within striking distance of the wilderness. In the remaining days before his sixteenth birthday the king ordered the boy confined to the palace, having no contact with the outside world.

On the day of his son’s sixteenth birthday the king received word a large boar had been sighted near the palace, close to the wilderness edge. Suspecting this to be the supernatural agent, come to claim his son, the king rode out to meet the beast, hoping to slay the animal. Before leaving, the king gave instruction that the boy be guarded at all times and forbidden to leave his room.

After searching in vain for the animal, the king returned to the palace only to be met with a great commotion. Hurriedly ascending to the rooms occupied by the prince he found his son dead, lying upon the terrace, impaled by a decorative lance that had hung upon the wall. Closer examination of its wooden shaft showed its end carved into the royal insignia – a ferocious wild boar.

Questioning the terrified attendants, they told how the signal of the king’s return had prompted the youth to run out onto the terrace to welcome his return. At that very moment a fierce wind shook the palace, dislodging the lance, which had fallen and impaled the youth. Later, in honour of his stunning prediction, Mihira was awarded the title Varāhamihira (Varāha meaning boar), a title which persists to this day.

The son of Ādityadāsa,30 Varāhamihira,31 is historically honoured as scientist, astronomer, mathematician, author and, of course, astrologer. Little remains known of the man himself or his true origins, and like so many historical characters there is much disagreement over the accuracy of events surrounding his life.

As an author he is known to have written on a wide variety of subjects including: pilgrimages (tīrtha/yātrā), military campaigns (bṛhadyātrā), marriage (vivāhapaṭala), mathematics (karaṇa) and of course Jataka (natal astrology). His surviving Pañca Siddhântikâ (five astronomical canons32) has been dated in the region of AD 450–570 and remains an important compendium on early Indian Astronomy. Mihira’s residence in Ujjayinī (Ujjain) is almost universally accepted, especially in regard to his famed mathematical school which later to become an important Indian cultural centre that prospered under his patronage. Mihira is often quoted as saying, ‘There is no better boat than a horoscope to help a man cross the troubled seas of life.’

NOTES

1.Also known as Nikko Bosatsu or Sûryaprabha.

2.Also known as Gatten or Chandraprabha.

3.Also known as Yakushiji Nyorai, master of healing in Mahāyāna Buddhism.

4.The Indian classic Mahabharat describes weapons known as Brahmā-astras and Agneya-astras, which when taken in the context of a nuclear explosion seem eerily similar in their devastating effects, including radiation sickness. The Agnī Purana mentions Dhupa (projectiles/flying weapons) and the use of Visvasaghati, a mixture of metal oxides, carbon, oils, waxes, turpentine and other organic materials producing a highly volatile substance akin to modern-day napalm.

5.Two such examples include: the bronze cast chariots and horses of Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di, unearthed in China in 1980. These examples are perhaps the largest ever found and are not only highly decorative and detailed but are also functional. Although these half life-scale replicas were apparently ornamental, both are comprised of over seven thousand separately carved and cast pieces. These parts include skilful mechanical jointing and flattened sheet sections of 1–4mm in thickness. A second example would be the Daibutsu in the To¯dai-ji Temple, Nara Prefecture (Japan). Completed in AD 750 this 50-feet-high giant is considered one of the largest Buddha statues of its kind and is believed to have consumed the nation’s entire copper/tin reserves during construction. Weighing in at a staggering 250 tons (minus base), its gold finishing swallowed over 200 kilos of liquid mercury during its final fire-gilding.

6.Much of humanity was thought to reside in a dim collective morass and so shielded from potentially dangerous knowledge, i.e. ‘too much light can damage weak eyes’.

7.Astr = stars and ology = the study thereof.

8.May AD 330 saw the founding of Constantinople, Constantine himself presiding over an entourage of pagan/Christian priests, who under the instruction of astrologers renamed Byzantium Constantinople.

9.The coincidence of sidereal and tropical zodiacs, thought to be within the range of AD 285–576. Shil Ponde’s calculation offers a possible congruence around the year AD 522.

10.Those using a twelve-fold division of the zodiac. During the Islamic incursion into North India, Tajik/Tāzig (Iranian for Arab) techniques may have been re-imported into Jyotish; these techniques are still favoured in some Vargas (divisional charts).

11.Hipparchus of Nicaea (150 BC) suggested an Ayanāṃśa value of ‘no less than 36″ yearly’.

12.This value is based upon a total processionary cycle of 25,920 years.

13.Earth’s seasons (solstices and equinox) are tied to our orbit about the Sun. Due to the phenomena of precession, the planet’s nutation slowly shifts the apparent position of the Sun backward against the stars at each of these juncture points.

14.Ayana = solstice and amsha = portion.

15.Worship of the twenty-eight asterisms (and other heavenly bodies) played a significant role in the Esoteric Buddhism founded in China. For more information see Brill (2013).

16.Use of Arabic Lunar Mansions in alchemy gained some ground during the renaissance for electional astrology. Today they are little used by astrologers in the west. For more information see Bartlett (2008).

17.The origins of Jyotish Shāstra are commonly attributed to a number of sutras in Kāuçika Sūtra (Atharva Veda); these early references to the planets, Nakshatras and other celestial phenomena appear mainly in the form of Mhurta (electional astrology) but are nonetheless prolific.

18.The Saṁhitā (science) of astronomy is sometimes presented as Karaṇa: planetary calculation only, Siddhānta/Tantra: planetary positions and the structure of the universe, etc., Jataka/Horā: individual horoscopes and later Tājik: celestial timing and the study of fortuitous events.

19.Might also be termed the mapping (geography) of space just as Bhūgola is the mapping or geography of Earth.

20.More specifically, Mhurta = 48 minutes.

21.Nimitta requires skilled guidance by one already proficient in this form of divination.

22.From the Greek πλανηται = wanderers.

23.Parasara recounts how nine aspects of the god Vishnu incarnated into each of the grahas. To the Sun, lord Rama; to the Moon, Krishna; to Mars, Narasimha; to Mercury, the Buddha; to Jupiter, Vamana; to Venus, Parashurama; to Saturn, Kurma; to Rāhu, Varāha; and to Ketu, Matsya.

24.See Kirk (2013).

25.Saṃhitā = a collection/an authoritative work.

26.Hero, warrior and semi-mythical Emperor/King heralding from India’s ‘golden age’. Vikramāditya is commonly agreed to be Chandragupta II (late 4th to early 5th century CE).

27.Ujjayini City is situated in the modern-day state of Madhya Pradesh (India). Ujjayini was taken as prime meridian for the calculation of solar/luna positioning.

28.Navaratnā, literally meaning ‘nine jewels’, in this instance nine wise and learned men: Varāhamihira (astrologer), Dhanvantarī (Āyurvedic Physician), Kālidāsa (poet), Vetālabhaṭṭa (scientist/philosopher), Saṅku (map maker/geographer), Ghaṭakarpara (architect), Vararuchi (Sanskrit scholar), Amarasiṃha (poet/author) and Kṣapaṇaka (Jain scholar).

29.The royal insignia is believed to represent Varaha (the third avatar of Vishnu) who rescued the submerged Earth from below the primal waters.

30.Devotee of the Sun and honoured as the source of all his Earthly knowledge.

31.Historically; Varāhamihira is thought to have lived between the years 450–570 CE; his ethnicity of Persian decent. The Islamic historian and scholar al-Bīrūnī (Abû Raiḥân), c.973–1048, notes Pañca Siddhântikâ to have been composed five hundred years prior to his own time, somewhat corroborating these dates. Varāhamihira (a polymath) is credited with a number of important written works including: Pañca Siddhântikâ (astronomy), Brihat Jātaka (astrology) and Brihat Saṃhitā (natural earth sciences).

32.A compendium of astrological information obtained from Indian, Greek, Roman and Persian sources, these Siddhânta (texts) being: Paitāmaha, Romaka, Vāsishṭha, Pauliśa and Sûrya.