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A NOTE ON LANGUAGE

When referring to Chinese names in this book, I use the renderings that American journalists, missionaries, and immigration officials provided. English translations of Chinese names, however, are notoriously unreliable.

In English translations of Chinese, the family name appears before the given name. Accordingly, I refer to individuals with Chinese names by their first rather than second name. The exception here is when the first name is given as “Ah,” which is used as a diminutive or nickname prefix added to a name in the Chinese language. Where white officials referred to a Chinese immigrant by Ah followed by a second name, I use the second name to refer to the individual, even if this is the person’s given name.

In referring to Chinese place names, unless I am quoting directly, I use the current Hanyu Pinyin transliteration system.