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ОглавлениеToday Islam, tomorrow Hinduism? Challenges for Christians in the West
The main theme of this book is the place and potential of Hindus, and their religious base, to become a challenge to other religions and communities, and in particular that of Christianity, as a faith, world view and way of life. Can there be a long-term and deep encounter, a positive interaction between Christianity and Hinduism, between Christians and Hindus, or are they to develop in different worlds? Can there be, potentially and in practice, a theologically and spiritually rich engagement? I believe there can be, hence this book. And we have a chance in the West to help this to happen, where there are not the same political agendas that arise in India. Can there be a true meeting between these two faiths here, or are they so different, so much opposites, that the most that can happen is that they remain at peace, but keep themselves at a distance, as inevitably opposites at all kinds of levels – spiritual, theological, missiological?
There is an obvious contemporary starting point: the growing economic power of India. This can be symbolized by its demand to be a permanent member of the UN Security Council, in the way that China is. Its population is now over one billion, so why should it not be at the top table? It is a nuclear power, having successfully defied the West without losing its respectability as a negotiating partner. Its nuclear bomb became known as the Hindu bomb, as a counter to the Muslim bomb in nearby Pakistan. The USA even agreed, in 2012, to allow export of vast amounts of nuclear technology, and India offered around £97 billion of contracts to foreign investment in nuclear power. Like China, it resisted the pressures of the economic collapse, and its growth continued seemingly uninterrupted, though with the occasional blip, as in 2013. Like China, it has resisted the pressure to take enforceable steps about the environment and global warming, arguing that it is in the process of ‘catch-up’ and its per capita use of the world’s resources remains low compared with either the USA or Europe. Its poverty remains widespread and often extreme, but claims are made that this is reducing both through proactive government and through the trickle-down effect of the growing middle class, around the urban centres in particular.
At the same time, the Indian diaspora has spread throughout the world, and Indians are marked by their high level of educational, technological and economic achievement. They are the most educated community in the UK, and have incomes not far off that of Chinese and Koreans as the highest earners in the USA (see Chapter 8 on the USA). In some ways, they are everyone’s favourite immigrants, with their reputation for hard work, cultural identity, family coherence, colourful artistic achievement and culinary excellence. Eighty per cent of Indians are classified as Hindus, and this religion has consequently had a good press wherever the diaspora has gone. It is known for its colour, music, festivals, joyfulness, and for its lack of ideology and aggressive rhetoric, or missionary zeal. It is inclusive of women and the family. It is not feared like Islam, but welcomed into the cultural map of the places where it has gone. It appears not to want to impose itself, but to adjust to context. Its seeming inclusiveness makes it attractive to the Western way of thinking and to postmodernism. You can take this or that from it, and nothing is required. It also seems to hold its communities together, with very little crime or indiscipline among its young people, and lower rates of marriage breakdown than elsewhere.
Nor does it seem to be a threat to Christianity. With few exceptions, it does not wish to convert others; indeed the concept of conversion has little meaning in the Western sense as found in the Abrahamic faiths. It is a question of ‘live and let live’. It is not credal or dogmatic, and the seeming absence of a Church, central structures, a hierarchy, is deeply attractive to those who have rejected these within their own faith tradition. Its seeming spiritual focus on meditation and yoga, and its world view that seems to emphasize history less, and the spirit more, also provides an attraction to those who have rejected the faith of Christianity and especially of the church in which they have been brought up. Its willingness to accept Jesus as an incarnation of God also allows an inclusiveness of the central part of Christian faith – and the belief that there are many other incarnations than Jesus of Nazareth, born 2,000 years ago in a remote province of the Roman Empire, seems to have considerable attraction.
Hence the theme of this introduction. How far can we envisage the challenge of Hinduism in the coming decades? Can it to any degree replace the challenge of Islam, or become any kind of rival in terms of influence and importance? Would it want to be this? The answer to this question bears on the main chapters of the book, a study of Hindu–Christian encounter in the Indian diaspora in general, and in the UK in particular. Where have we come from, and where are we going? Little has been written on this theme, and Islam or Judaism has been dominant in the literature in recent decades. The aim of this book is to fill some of this gap, and this chapter is an introduction to what gap is to be filled.
One thing that is clear is that Hinduism cannot in any real sense be understood without considering its roots in India. Whatever it is, it is a religion of the soil, and in that sense it can be compared with Judaism, a religion of the land. This is hard to understand, and to feel, for those following global religions. Origins in Palestine or Arabia do not dominate Christianity or Islam, though the Arabic language has much greater importance for Islam than Greek for Christianity.
In many ways, Hinduism appears to differ from the Abrahamic faiths. They are seen as the religions of Moses, Jesus and Muhammad respectively. There are named founders. There are confined scriptures – the Torah, the New Testament, the Qur’an. And there are required beliefs, however interpreted – in the Ten Commandments; the nature and work of Jesus, and of God as Trinity; the Qur’an, Allah, and Muhammad as the last prophet. There are clear requirements in each case, in terms of ethical or legal demands. And there are norms of prayer and worship to be followed, and boundaries as to what makes one a Jew, a Christian or a Muslim. There is a firm view of the place of history, and the way that God has worked through that history. There is an eschatology of what is to happen in the end times, as well as an explanation of origins in Creation. There are markers in the history of these faiths – the call of Abraham, Moses on Mount Sinai receiving the commandments, the exodus from Egypt; the life, death and resurrection of Jesus, and the formation of the Church at Pentecost; the calling of the Prophet Muhammad, the revelation of the Qur’an and the formation of the new Islamic community.
In apparent contrast with this, the traditions behind Hinduism go back an unspecified number of years – 5,000 years is often referred to loosely. There is no one and agreed founder, no one official scripture recognized as mandatory for the believer. There is no authorized creed, no organization to be compared with church, no hierarchy that is immediately recognizable. There are of course rich traditions and ancestors to whom Hindus look, such as Shankara and Ramunuja, and there are a range of scriptures central to different groups, as well as the Vedas, traditionally acknowledged by all. The Upanishads and Vedanta are also so recognized, and the countless stories (Puranas), and epics. The Bhagavadgita (or simply ‘the Gita’) has become almost the scripture in the West, as it was for Gandhi.
But of course there are organizations and hierarchies within different Hindu groups; and there is the caste organization, with Brahmins at the top of a very powerful hierarchy. There is the Sanskrit language, unifying across higher-caste Hindus. There are immense regional variations. There is no common understanding of what it means to be a Hindu. It may have little to do with temple attendance or religious practice or knowledge; it has a great deal to do with seemingly hard-to-define questions such as ethos, culture, tradition, heritage, Indianness, regional feel.
To go on to consider the engagement between indigenous Christians and incoming Hindus in the UK, the USA and elsewhere, it is necessary to go back to the beginning of the encounter at the Indian end, and our next chapter looks at the churches in India within the Hindu context where they were born and developed. There is a fundamental difference here. Incoming Christian missionaries came as a tiny minority with a primary purpose of creating Christian churches in a new land. In no sense did Hindus come to the West, or to British imperial territories in Africa, the Caribbean, and other parts of the East, to create new Hindu communities. They brought those communities with them as they came for other purposes – trade, employment, education or as bonded labourers. Of course, in the colonial era, Christians came to India as administrators, soldiers, engineers, tea planters, educators, doctors, traders, adventurers. The colonial administrators and traders not only adjusted to Hinduism as they found it, but often used it for their own purpose, encouraging the highest-caste Brahmins to help them to divide and rule.
But there was a particular group who came to spread Christianity, following an expansionist ideology, ‘to make disciples of all nations’ (Matthew 28.19), which included Indians of all varieties. Here they met the challenge of Hinduism in all its complexity, as we shall be considering in this book, a challenge that has only come directly to UK churches and those in other Western countries in the last few decades. Until then, encounter with Hinduism was always ‘over there’ and was encounter with ‘the exotic’ or ‘the demonic’, to be read about, to be heard about in missionary talks, but to be kept safely at a distance. As such there was a fascination with Hinduism as it was gradually discovered and engaged with. Geoff Oddie, in his recent book Reimagining Hinduism,1 has shown through a study of missionary journals and literature that in the nineteenth century it was Hinduism rather than Islam that received most of the attention. It was an exciting journey of discovery, with the early emphasis being on the horrific, and later the challenge of a religion to be taken very seriously as a rival for Indian minds and communities.
There can be no dispute that the present (early twenty-first-century) perceived challenge to Christians, and to churches, lies in the profile of Islam. How to respond to the post-1989 dominance of agendas related to Islam? September 11, 2001 is the tip of the iceberg, the moment when this became most apparent. But this date does not represent an isolated event, coming from nowhere. The Huntington Thesis, about the inevitability of the Clash of Civilizations between Islam and the West, became highlighted at this point, and gained considerable credibility – and indeed notoriety.2 But this was because it was the most dramatic of a series of such incidents, and was followed also by further terrorist events, such as the London Bombings of 7 July 2005, and the bombings of 2004 in Madrid, and in Boston and a Nairobi shopping centre in 2013. These were only the most striking of the events happening in the West. Meanwhile, there were endless terrorist events going on in countries in Africa and Asia, involving Islamist rhetoric, and the vast number of deaths in Iraq and Afghanistan, precipitated by the invasions of these countries in response to September 11. Huntington could claim at least a prima facie case for this thesis, and popular rhetoric and the media fed itself on belief in this. The clash between capitalism and Marxist communism had been replaced decisively by that between Christianity and Islam.
This was not just about violence. It was also about world view, philosophy and way of life; it was about cultural difference. It was about the law, rationalism, the place of women, moral values, materialism, freedom, democracy. Emotionally, sharia, and all it symbolized, was as important a part of this clash as the seemingly endless acts of violence in the name of Allah. Huntington wrote memorably:
Islam’s borders are bloody and so are its innards. The underlying problem for the West is not Islamic fundamentalism. It is Islam, a different civilization whose people are convinced of the superiority of their culture, and are obsessed with the inferiority of their power.3
He was also conscious of what he felt were the inherent weaknesses in the West, and in the USA in particular. The American dream had become fragmented, not least by Hispanic immigration. Christianity was fragmented also, and in Europe in steep decline. An ideologically coherent Islam posed a real threat, not just in terms of global presence, but also in the heartlands of the USA and Europe.
There are many flaws in Huntington’s often oversimplistic generalizations, and painting things as black and white, with little grey. I will quote just two critiques. The first is from a leading younger Muslim academic practitioner in the UK:
Muslims are now part of the West, so the discussion is not really between ‘them’ and ‘us’ but between ‘us’ and ‘us’, amongst ourselves, with our common humanity. Talk of ‘clash of civilisations’ in this context is not only dangerous and irresponsible (for the fault lines it perpetuates), it is also foolish . . . Muslims living in the West may not agree with certain material motivations in the West or the way the family is being neglected, and on these issues they may stand together with many of their fellow citizens of Christian and other faiths, and non-faith backgrounds. Muslims living in the West may take issue with the current state of social and international justice, and they would again stand with the majority of fellow citizens.4
The other is from the leading prophet of Islamic reform, Tariq Ramadan. He writes in the powerful summary he has compiled of his thinking, What I Believe:
I mean to build bridges between two universes of reference, between two (highly debatable) constructions termed Western and Islamic ‘civilizations’ (as if those were closed, monolithic entities), and between citizens within Western societies themselves. My aim is to show, in theory and in practice, that one can be both fully Muslim and Western and that beyond our different affiliations we share many common principles and values through which it is possible to ‘live together’ within contemporary pluralistic, multicultural societies where various religions coexist.5
Less prominent in the discussion have been Samuel Huntington’s other ‘civilizations’ – they are Latin, Japanese, Sinic, Hindu, Orthodox and African. Even since Huntington wrote 15 years or more ago, the growing importance of the Chinese presence in the world has been endorsed by its population numbers, its enormous economic growth and its centrality to the world economy, with its vital contribution to stabilization after the great banking crisis of 2008–9. It has now overtaken Japan as the second largest economy in the world. Brazil has been leading South America economically, while Venezuela resisted the power of the USA with the demagogic leadership and socialist rhetoric of its now late President Chavez. The Hispanic population grows in proportion rapidly within the USA. Africa has the potential to become less of a basket case, and more assertive of its place in the world. Here we have witnessed the symbolism of the football World Cup taking place in South Africa, and the potential growth in several countries, once stability is shown to be sustaining, and natural resources come to the fore. David Smith, in The Observer in July 2010, described how what had been dubbed the ‘hopeless’ continent, ten years before, was now experiencing a spectacular recovery from the global recession thanks to decades of market reform and strong trade ties with China.
I wish in this Introduction to say from the outset that this is not primarily an academic book, but one to encourage practitioners, and would-be practitioners from both faiths, to develop their competence and confidence in the field of Hindu–Christian relations. As such, it is written mainly in broad-brush colours rather than narrowly argued academic reasoning. This does not mean that it is merely popular in its feel, but though chapters vary in this way, it is a book written with a mission: to encourage a wider interest in its subject across the churches, clergy, theological students and lay people, and Hindus who wish to go deeper in their engagement with Christians.
After the chapter on Christians in India and their engagement with Hindus, there follow three chapters which consist of three lectures I gave in India in several colleges, in autumn 2011. They are constructed around three bhakti movements in the West, primarily the UK. These are ISKCON, a very promising movement for Christians to interact with; South Indian bhakti movements and their temples; and examples of conversion to Christianity, where bhakti has been to the fore, including an example of someone who calls himself a Jesu Bhakter (someone devoted to Jesus). There follows a short chapter on the Swaminarayan movement, a very important movement found wherever Gujaratis have settled, which means throughout the diaspora. Next there are three case-study chapters. Two are major studies: on the city of Leicester, where I live and which is seen as the Hindu heart within the UK; and on the USA, with a considerable and wealthy Hindu population. The third case study is a smaller one, from Sweden, where I have spent some time. It is hoped that these three chapters can give a feel for our topic throughout the diaspora. Next there is a chapter on Hindu–Christian forums in the UK that I have been involved in. The final chapter, before the concluding comments on the question about how far this is a ‘meeting of opposites’, is a discussion of the major theological, spiritual, dialogical and mission issues arising out of the encounter between Christians and Hindus in the West.
There are many interviews in this book, and these were conducted mainly in 2011 and 2012, and some in 2013 and 2014. These were recorded accurately at the time, and checked where possible.
