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CHAPTER 2

THE COUNTRY

Geography

Vietnam lies between 8°33' and 23°22' north latitude. It is bordered on the north by China; on the south by the Gulf of Siam; on the east by the Gulf of Tonkin and the South China Sea for more than 1400 miles; and on the west by Cambodia and Laos.

The Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) are divided at approximately the 17th parallel by a narrow demilitarized zone along the Song Ben Hai river. At this point of division, the country is only 39 miles wide.

This distance gradually widens in the south until it reaches approximately 100 miles across at the Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam border. The widest point in the south is along an east-west line between the port town of Phan Rang on the South China Sea and near Hoa Hiep on the Cambodian border where the distance is 210 miles.

The widest point in the north is approximately 350 miles from the Laos border to the Gulf of Tonkin at the base of South China.

The shape of North and South Vietnam together is like a big "S." South Vietnam is similar to the reverse shape of California and is smaller than that state.

Total land area of the whole country, north and south, is approximately 127,000 square miles. South Vietnam is about 65,000 square miles, a little smaller than the state of Washington. North Vietnam makes up the remaining 62,000 square miles.

Description

Vietnam is a land of diversity. In this beautiful country, one may find mountains; plains alternating with deep valleys; cultivated green fields; and sparsely settled savanna lands. Even small areas of land resembling deserts are found in Vietnam. About half of the country is jungle, with 80 per cent of the land covered with trees and bushes.

Central Vietnam is characterized by a chain of mountains, ranging in height from 3,500 to 10,000 feet.

One of the most common Vietnamese descriptions of their country, is that it looks like a bamboo pole holding a bucket of rice on each end.

Lush rice lands are found both in the delta of South Vietnam along the Mekong river, and in North Vietnam along the delta of the Red River. Consequently, this is why it is described as a bamboo pole with two big rice bowls on each end of the country. The pole is the long, slender part of Vietnam characterized by the mountain ranges.

Central Vietnam does not enjoy the fertile lands that are found in the north and south. It is like a long irregular corridor joining the north and south. Made up of small hill plains and mountains, it is drained by relatively short streams.

There are many picturesque scenes and enjoyable cities in Central Vietnam including the most important city of the south, Saigon.

In sharp contrast with the deltas displaying seasonal crops are the tropical forests, providing a natural habitat for countless wild animals.

In the central area of the country, which is not suitable for agriculture, rubber plantations abound in the rich volcanic soil.

Population

The population range for South Vietnam is 15 to 16 million people. In the north, it is 16 to 17 million.

The majority of people in Vietnam live in the rice-producing regions. The Red River delta in North Vietnam is more heavily populated than the delta region of the Mekong in the south. As many as 1,000 to 3,000 people may live on one square mile of land in the Red River delta. Figures for the southern delta show between 200 to 500 people residing on one square mile of land. In the mountain regions of Vietnam, as few as five or six people may live on a square mile of land.

Hydrography

The principal river of North Vietnam is the Red River (Son Hong Ha) which begins in the Yunnan province of China and flows through North Vietnam spreading into a delta before emptying into the Gulf of Tonkin. It is sometimes called the "mother river" because its alluvium fertilizes the lands of North Vietnam. Other rivers are the Clear River (Lo-Giang) and the Black River (Da-Giang). Main streams are the Day, the River of Nam-Dinh, the Canal of Rapids and the Canal of Bamboos.

The Red River delta is joined to another, the Song Tai-Binh which is made up of the three united rivers, the Cau, Thuong, and Luc-Nam.

The best-known river in the Central region is the Perfume River in Hue province. Other small rivers abound in this area including the Ca, Ma, Gianh, Thu Bon, Tra-Khuc, and Da-Rang.

By far the most important river in the southern part of the country is the huge Mekong, which winds over 2,500 miles from the highlands in Tibet to the South China Sea. The entire delta region of South Vietnam is furrowed by many streams, tributaries of larger rivers and numerous canals which make up an excellent network for navigation and irrigation.

Some of the other rivers and streams in the south are the Dong Na (splits into the Donnai and River of Saigon); the Vam-Co and the branches of the Mekong, Tien-Giang (upper river) and the Hau-Giang (lower river).

Climate

The climate of Vietnam, just as its geography, is subject to many variations.

North Vietnam

The climate in the north is very similar to that of southern China. It is characterized by great seasonal differences in temperature, and sudden changes are not uncommon.

There are two main seasons in North Vietnam, winter and summer. Winter generally lasts from November to April with rather pleasant cool weather. The average temperature in this season is about 60°F. This season is usually rather dry. The summer season begins in May and lasts till October. It is a time of tremendous heat, heavy rainfall, and typhoons. The average temperatures range between 86° and 89°F. The daily temperatures may run in the 90's during this season.

South Vietnam

The south has a monsoon climate with rather consistent average temperatures of between 77° and 86°. There are two main seasons—wet and dry. The dry season lasts from November to April with barely a day of rain and then changes to the rainy season which lasts from May to October.

November is usually the month of transition. There is an exception to this in the region of Phan Thiet to Phan Rang where the rains come from September to December. Typhoons are common along the coast between July and November.

The hottest and most unpleasant time in South Vietnam is generally between February and April when the atmosphere is humid and the many storms seldom break into a cooling rain.

In Central Vietnam, the climate is a transition between the climates of the north and south.

HOTTEST MONTHS

North Vietnam	June, July, and August.
South Vietnam	March, April, and May.

AVERAGE ANNUAL TEMPERATURES

Saigon	Between 77° and 86°. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Saigon was 57°. Mean maximum temperature is approximately 95° in April. Mean minimum—approximately 70° in January.
Dalat	Temperatures here are considerably lower with a 60-70 0 range in winter. The highs and lows for the year are around 80° and 40°. Ideal weather is from November to March, during the dry season.
Hue	Between 68° and 86°.
Hanoi	Between 63° and 86°.

Rainfall

Rainfall in Vietnam is heavy. The yearly average is about 59 inches. The maximum annual amount of rain is usually registered at Hue where it often reaches 110 inches. At Hanoi, the rains begin at the end of May and reach their height in August, with 14 inches for that month. The dryest region is Gap Padaran where the yearly amount is only three inches.

Saigon's monthly rainfall average during the rainy season is approximately 50 inches.

WILDLIFE

Flora

As in all tropical countries, Vietnam has a range of plants that vary from those of great beauty to those of danger. It has been reported that more than 2,000 varieties of orchid grow wild in the jungles of Vietnam. Beautiful flowers can be found in gardens year-round in the cooler areas of the country such as Dalat and other mountain areas.

The Botanical Gardens in Saigon has one of the best collections of orchids and equatorial plants in the world.

There are also dangerous plants such as several species of poisonous nettles growing in the southern part of the country. They grow to a height of 10 to 15 feet and have pointed, heart-shaped leaves with serrated edges which contain poisonous hairs. Contact with these plants causes a painful skin eruption.

Another item of special interest is the sack tree (Antiarus Toxicaria) which has a poisonous sap. Natives and Viet-Cong use the sap for arrow poison. The tree grows to a height of 100 feet and its leaves are similar to those of an elm.

Fauna

There are up to 500 species of fauna in Vietnam. Except for urban and built-up areas, the country is one big hunting ground. Indeed, in times of peace, it could be the hunting paradise of Asia.

The favorites of big-game hunters include tigers, panthers, elephants, wild oxen and buffalo, boars, bears, deer, capi-corns, Cambodian roe, koupreys, and others. Small game include birds ranging from the peacock to the partridge.

A popular small animal caught by the use of a snare is the mouse-deer.

There are also many monkeys in the Vietnamese forests, and each year thousands are exported for medical research.

Two of the most outstanding zoo's in the country are located in Saigon and Dalat. The zoo at Dalat is small but impressive. It is located inside a forest reserve and the animals can be observed in their natural habitat.

Snakes

There are more than 60 known species of snakes, 20 of them poisonous. They include cobras, kraits, vipers, and water snakes.

Caimans

Pythons and caimans are hunted for their skins which have great value. Alligators are often a threat to villagers, especially in the south.

Turtles

There are various species of turtles in the country, but the caret, common around islands, is popular because its shell can be used for handicrafts.

Rodents

Rodents are a problem for farmers and housewives. There are great numbers of rats, mice. moles, squirrels, etc., and some rats are as big as house cats.

Fish

In addition to the species described in Chapter 9, there are several kinds of fish that can inject venom through their spines, causing painful stings and sometimes death. Sharks are also prevalent along the coast.

Leeches

One of the worst pests of the jungle is the land leech which inhabits the grass and underbrush. Its bite is not venomous or painful, but causes bleeding, and infection can develop ulcers at the wound. They are usually removed by burning, as one removes a tick from a dog.

Mollusks

Snails are found in great abundance, especially along the paddy fields and waterways. Serious diseases can be contacted from them as they act as a carrier of blood parasites. In the southern coastal waters, there are also a few species of marine mollusks which can inflict painful and sometimes fatal stings.

Mosquitoes

Numerous species of mosquitoes reside in Vietnam, many of which transmit diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and hemmorraghic fever. A tremendous program aimed at eliminating malaria was working well until the Vietnamese personnel carrying out the spraying became the object of Viet-Cong terrorism.

Insects

Many people are infested with lice and it is a common sight to see the Vietnamese picking them from each other's hair. Fleas, ticks, mites, spiders, scorpions, ants, termites, bedbugs, and cockroaches are all present in the country.

HISTORY IN A NUTSHELL

The earliest history of Vietnam is shrouded in legend, all of which has been violent and politically turbulent.

According to one account, Vietnam was begun when a dragon mated with a goddess who "laid one hundred eggs" from which were born an equal number of sons.

By another version, Chen Nong, one of the founders of the Chinese civilization, had a grandson named King De Minh. This grandson made an inspection tour in the "South" and while there married a "mortal." Their eldest children were given the northern empire (or China) and the youngest, King Duong Vuong, was made "King of the South" and formed the first Vietnamese dynasty. The land is believed to have been absorbed in what is China today.

One of King Duong Vuong's sons, Lac Long Quan, was supposed to have married the daughter of a neighboring prince, and she "laid a hundred eggs" from which were born the same number of sons.

According to legend, Lac Long Quan gave 50 sons to their mother and kept 50 for himself. The eldest of these 50 sons came to the throne as the first in a line of 18 princes. All of them had the same name or title, Hung Vuong, and were distinguished by numbers.

Because of this legendary beginning, many Vietnamese consider themselves related to each other.

The oldest inhabitants of what is Vietnam today were most likely the Chams, a few thousand of whom still remain among the mountain people.

These mountain tribes reflect migrations from all directions having some relationship in language and handicrafts to Lao, Cambodian, Thai, Chinese, Malay, Indonesian, Philippine, and other Pacific island races. The southern areas of Vietnam reflect migrations from China. The Chams, who had a rather high development of culture, were later completely defeated by the Vietnamese after years of warfare which was originally initiated by the Chinese governors of Vietnam.

Vietnam has been ruled off and on by China throughout the centuries and this partly accounts for their resistance to China today.

Beginning before the birth of Christ, the Chinese began a series of invasions intent on controlling the rich rice-producing lands of the south. Among the first people in Vietnam that they conquered were the "Giao-Chi," a group of scattered nomadic tribes which had migrated from eastern Tibet. Because of these invasions by the Chinese and the resulting occupations and migrations, culture in Vietnam has been greatly influenced by the Chinese.

Despite this influence, the Vietnamese people have shown a desire to hang on to what is theirs and theirs alone. Their language and determination to remain a separate entity and wholly Vietnamese has survived.

The last attempt by the Chinese to invade Vietnam was in 1788. By this time, Portuguese and French missionaries and European explorers had begun to leave an imprint of Western civilization upon the people of Vietnam. The Portuguese traders who set up a trading station near Da-Nang (Tourane) in the 16th century, were the earliest known Western contacts with the Vietnamese. They were swiftly followed by the Spanish, Dutch, English, and French, all of whom have left a little of their culture behind. Their ventures in the country, however, may take up only a page in the history of Vietnam.

For simplification, a Vietnamese historian has divided the history of Vietnam into five era's.

First establishment of the nation: 2,879 b.c. to 111 b.c.

Chinese domination: 111 b.c. to a.d. 938

The great national dynasties: 939-1883

French Administration: 1883-1954

Post-World War II Period: After 1945

The Early Settlement of the Vietnamese Nation

Historians state that the Vietnamese nation was established in the first millennium b.c., mainly by the Viets who emigrated from Central China. This is a period rich in legend, the telling of which gets better and more exciting with each succeeding generation. The area became known as the Kingdom of Nam Viet in 207 b.c.

Chinese Domination

Vietnam fell under the domination of its neighbor China in 111 b.c. when Lo Bac Due, a Chinese general, destroyed Nam Viet. This period of domination continued until a.d. 938 with the exception of two short-lived revolutions.

The first rebellion was led by the famous Trung sisters, Trung Trac and Trung Nhi, idolized to this day in Vietnam. Leading their armies in a successful revolt, they restored the country's independence for three years. They were later defeated by large Chinese forces. The sisters then committed suicide by drowning themselves in a river. More information about them may be found in Chapter 10.

The second successful rebellion was led by Ly Nam De. He reigned over the liberated country from a.d. 544-602.

During the Chinese period of domination in Vietnam, much of the Chinese culture was absorbed by the Vietnamese nation.

Two famous Chinese governors of this era were Tich Quang and Nham-Diem.

The Chinese held their position in Vietnam later, despite the early dynasties of the Ly's, Trieu's, and others.

The Great National Dynasties

This particular era of independence for Vietnam lasted almost 1,000 years. The actual turning point from Chinese domition was established when Ngo-Quyen defeated the Chinese armies on the Bach-Dang Kiver in 938. He became emperor of free Vietnam the next year and reigned until 967. Ngo-Quyen was succeeded by eight different royal dynasties:

Dinh Dynasty	967-968
Le Dynasty	980-1009
Ly Dynasty	1010-1224
Tran Dynasty	1225-1400
Ho Dynasty	1400-1407
Posterior Le Dynasty	1428-1788
Tay Son Dynasty	1788-1802
Nguyen Dynasty	1802-1945

The Emperor Bao Dai was the last reigning descendant of the Nguyen Dynasty.

There are many things of historical importance which occurred during these dynasties.

Since the 11th century, under the Ly Dynasty, great progress was made. The country was unified; the economic, administrative and military organizations were greatly improved; cultural development commenced; and Buddhism was extended into Vietnam.

The famous Temple of Literature was built in Hanoi in 1070. The National University was created in 1076.

During these dynasties, Vietnamese armies turned back numerous invaders including the Chinese and the Mongols.

Due to internal strife, the Chinese were able to return and dominate Vietnam once more from 1407 to 1427.

One of Vietnam's national heroes, Le-Loi defeated the Chinese after a ten-year struggle. He ascended the throne under the reigning title of Le-Thai-To and gave the country the name of Dai-Viet and set up the capital at Hanoi, then called Dong-Do or Dong-Kinh.

There were also two partitions of Vietnam during these dynasties, similar to the one which exists today.

The first was from 1532 to 1592 when the Le Dynasty, which controlled the southern part of the country below Thanh-Hoa near the 20th parallel, fought the Mac Dynasty which occupied the north. The partition was ended by a victory for Le.

The second partition lasted from 1674 until 1802 when Gia-Long of the Nguyen family became emperor of a unified Vietnam once more.

The Era of the French Administration 1883-1954

Vietnam came in contact with the West, especially France, during the 19th century expansion of the West to Asia. Under the Nguyen Dynasties, hostilities broke out between France and Vietnam during the second half of the 19th century. The Vietnamese were overwhelmed by the French and were forced to yield their southern provinces in 1862 and 1867 as French colonies. This area was known as Cochin-China. The areas known as Annam and Tonkin were placed under the status of a French Protectorate in 1884.

Resistance, both active and passive, continued for a long time, however, and the French had to suppress many revolts. Some of the most important were those led by Emperor Ham-Nghi (1885-88); nationalist leaders Phan Ding Phung (1893-95) and Hoang Hoa Tham (1889-1913); and the Nationalist Party in 1930.

The matter of France and Vietnam has long been a subject of debate. There are those who claim the French contributed a great deal to Vietnam, both with money and talent. Then there are also those who believe that Vietnam was exploited by France only as a provider of raw materials, yet was not given any opportunity for industrial development. The late President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt believed this and was often quoted as saying that France had milked Vietnam dry, long enough.

The French ran the administration of Vietnam, and a Vietnamese historian charged that there was not a single Vietnamese as head of a province, a city, a battalion, or even as police commissioner when World War II broke out. He believed that this particularly made Vietnam an easy prey to communists and their subversion at the end of that war.

In Vietnam today, one can easily see the result of the French venture there. The second language is French and even the streets of the larger cities are built similar to those in France. This often leads to the comment that Saigon is the "Paris of the Orient." Architecture, medicine, administration and other things have continued to run as they did when the French were in power. Many Vietnamese citizens have been trained in France, and the Pasteur Institute stands today as a monument to the study of Asian diseases in Vietnam.

Chapter 5 contains more comprehensive information on the French influence in Vietnam, especially in the fields of civil service and education.

The Post-War II Period

The French continued to administer the country under Japanese military occupation which began in September 1940. For several years thereafter the French in Vietnam behaved with hospitality and cooperation toward the Japanese, thus protecting their investment in the country. At this same time, however, Americans were fighting to help save Free France in Europe and fighting the Japanese in the Pacific.

Toward the end of World War II, the Japanese made an "about face" and forcefully removed the French from the administration of Vietnam. Many French people lost their lives to the Japanese in Vietnam at this time. This left the country in a state of turmoil and without most public services, as these had been run by the French for over sixty years.

Some of the hard-feeling by the French for the United States today may be traced to the fact that the United States did not intercede immediately in the French people's behalf when the Japanese finally took action against them. On the other hand, many Americans did not understand the French cooperation and hospitable attitude toward the Japanese up to this point in Vietnam.

On April 16, 1945, a government was formed by Tran Trong Kim in an effort to restore law and order and to reorganize the country under Vietnamese administration. Even though the government was formed while still under Japanese occupation and during a world war, the new government formally declared that it was independent and "newborn" and that it wanted to be left alone for its reorganization.

According to Vietnamese historians, the Japanese refused to turn over the arms, money, tools, buildings, etc., that they had seized from the French. Without these things, the new government was helpless. Tran Trong Kim resigned about a week before the end of World War II. Emperor Bao-Dai abdicated on August 25, 1945, and a vacuum was created in the government, paving the way for further conflicts. In addition, the desire for national independence was a natural subterfuge for the communists in their attempts to take over the rice bowl of Asia.

The Viet-Minh

"Viet-Minh" is an abbreviation for "Vietnam Doc Lap Dong Minh" or "League for the Independence of Vietnam." The organization was founded during World War II by Vietnamese refugees in China.

Evidently this was used as a front organization for the communists, for Nguyen Ai Quoc, one of its leaders, changed his name to Ho Chi Minh in order to conceal his communist past, as he knew that the Vietnamese had little interest in communism but wanted national independence.

Supposedly, the Viet-Minh were to act as underground agents against the Japanese during that time, and some Americans from our various secret agencies were even posted with them. In actuality, the Viet-Minh did not make outstanding progress in harming the Japanese.

Many Vietnamese nationalists were induced to join the Viet-Minh as they believed they were going to seek the independence of Vietnam.

Ho Chi Minh proclaimed his government in Hanoi on September 2, 1945, without having to fire a single shot. When the French re-entered Vietnam, they found themselves at war with a group that had been armed in part by the Allies. Many of the Vietnamese chose to join their own government, even if it was a communist one, in order to drive the foreign power, France, out of their country for good.

The French installed the Emperor Bao Dai on March 8, 1949, promising independence within the French union. The whole set-up was rife with confusion, and graft was rampant. Instead of drawing the people to the French-run government, the opposite happened and more people joined the side of Ho Chi Minh.

Errors, lost battles, and a strange new kind of war led to the French forces defeat at Dien Bien Phu on May 8, 1954. The Vietnamese people fought to victory in spite of the superior French forces and fire power. They won, but unfortunately many of them were deceived. Those Vietnamese chose what they thought to be the lesser of two evils only to be trapped within communist subversion.

The end of French rule in Vietnam occurred when the Geneva Accords were signed in 1954 bringing colonial wars in the area to an end, and signalling the beginning of an even more dangerous, outright communist war.

The Geneva Accords

Under the terms of the Geneva agreement, the northern part of Vietnam and about half of Central Vietnam came under communist control. The remainder of Central Vietnam and all the South became "free" and the Emperor Bao-Dai was its head of government at the time. Laos and Cambodia also became independent national states under the Geneva Accords.

One particular clause in the Accords provided that people in either zone could move to the other if they so desired. Approximately one million refugees flowed to the southern areas of Vietnam because they did not wish to live under communism. A good accounting of this mass movement is included in Dr. Thomas Dooley's book, Deliver Us From Evil. A few thousand southerners also moved north.

Viet-Cong

Many communists remained in the south to raise their heads later when the Viet-Minh showed up once again, this time known as the Viet-Cong. (Viet communists represented by the National Liberation Front.)

Emperor Bao-Dai was deposed in 1955 and President Ngo Dinh Diem was installed by popular vote in the south.

The communists have continued in their efforts to weaken and destroy the government in South Vietnam and have wholeheartedly carried out their plans to conquer the south. In 1961, U.S. military aid was greatly increased to meet the challenge of the serious threat to the survival of the South Vietnamese people.

Viet-Cong terror tactics are known throughout the world today and many free nations led by the United States have joined hands with the South Vietnamese people to defeat the communists in South Vietnam. It is a difficult battle, but one that has received the determination to win from the United States under the leadership of Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson.

Later Governments in South Vietnam

President Diem's government started out well in South Vietnam and he became known in some circles as the "George Washington" of that country. He continued with a series of improvements for the citizens of Vietnam that would do credit to any leader. Unfortunately, he became more and more dictatorial, refused guidance from noted counselors and relied more and more on his brother Nhu, and his wife, Madame Nhu.

Gradually, the situation became worse. Two attempted coup d'etat's were foiled, but the third succeeded on November 1, 1963. Diem and his brother Nhu were captured, and both were killed by a dissident Major in the Army of Vietnam.

Diem was toppled by military means by a military junta led by an affable General Duong Van Minh. He, too, was replaced in a bloodless coup on January 30, 1964, by General Nguyen khanh. General Khanh was also replaced after a see-sawing effort to stay in power.

Since that time there have been a number of civilian and military caretaker governments, only one of which has remained in power for an appreciable length of time. It is headed by South Vietnamese Premier Gao Ky, a flamboyant young officer who worked his way from Colonel to Vice Air Marshal and Premier of the country in a period of less than three years.

INTERESTING PEOPLE IN VIETNAM'S PAST

A new Saigon resident can learn the names of Vietnam's heroes in a matter of weeks. Practically every street in the city is named for a famous person from Vietnam's colorful history. When the French were in control of Vietnam, the street names were French. After their departure and the formation of the new government, only two streets in Saigon kept their former names. They are:

Pasteur Street—Named after the famed French scientist and in thanks for the tremendous work accomplished by the Pasteur Institute in Vietnam.

Alexander-de-Rhodes—The French priest who gave the Vietnamese their language in romanized script. (See Chapter 3.)

Streets in Saigon named for Vietnamese heroes include:

Tran Hung Dao

The large boulevard connecting Saigon and Cholon bears this famous general's name. In the 13th century his tiny army defeated half a million Mongol invaders, who had already conquered most of Europe and Asia. He subsequently defeated them on two more invasions.

Tran Hung Dao was an uncle of the Emperor Tran Nhan Ton. His nephew made him a hero, and on his death, par-sonally supervised a ten day national funeral for him. His death is a national holiday in South Vietnam today.

Le-Loi

One of the biggest and busiest downtown streets in Saigon is named for a famous leader who for about ten years conducted guerrilla warfare against the Chinese who were ruling the country.

A man of intelligence, Le-Loi had been repeatedly offered Mandarinates by the Chinese but had always refused them. When his forces triumphed against the Chinese, Le-Loi acceded to power as king of Vietnam. He died six years later in 1433 in Hanoi, of beri-beri. While king, he ruled under the name Le-Thai-To.

Vo Tanh

Vo Tanh was a national hero of the 18th century who raised an army with his mother's money, and fought on the side of Nguyen Anh when war was raging between the Nguyen dynasty and the Tay Son. He was extremely successful until 1799 when he was attacked at Qui-Nhon.

He held out against a superior force for two years while hoping for reinforcements from the south. None came and Vo Tanh decided to write to the Tay Son general asking him to spare his troops.

After that, he put on his state dress uniform and assembled his troops around a stake which he had erected in the center of the fort. He told the troops that he had failed in his mission of defending the town, and wished to die at the stake rather than let the enemy see his face. He personally ignited the gunpowder beneath the stake. After his death, Vo Tanh was made a duke by the Emperor Minh Mang and a tomb was built for him in Gia-Dinh province.

Le Van Duyet

An interesting fact about this leader is that he was an eunuch. As in China, the eunuch system was an important institution in Vietnam. When a child was born with a congenital birth defect which would qualify him to become an eunuch, the family had to notify the Court and offer the services of the child. He might be used to guard and supervise the royal harem, or serve as liaison officer between the emperors and the mandarins when he was older. Usually, such a child began his work in the palace at the age of ten or eleven. The family of the child and the entire village from whence he came received tax concessions in compensation. Some eunuchs won places in the Mandarinate. Besides children born in this condition, others suffering physical injury were also selected, and castration was sometimes used as a recruitment technique.

Le Van Duyet was well liked by the Emperor Gia-Long who unified Vietnam. He was later appointed Governor-General of Saigon by the emperor. Duyet opposed Minh Mang's coming to the throne, but Gia-Long asked him to guide his inexperienced son during the first years of his rule.

Minh Mang, however, detested Le Van Duyet and resented his advice. In 1836, Emperor Minh Mang issued a decree with the purpose of diminishing the power of the eunuchs in government, notably Le Van Duyet. The new regulation forbade eunuchs to interfere in any way with administration and limited them to transmission of orders. He prohibited any more eunuchs from being appointed to the mandarinal corps. This marked the beginning of the end of the eunuch system in Vietnam.

Le Van Duyet was born in 1762 in My Tho near Saigon. After his death, General Le Van Duyet was brought to disgrace when Emperor Minh Mang relieved him posthumously of his rank, and cancelled all nominations and titles conferred on him during his lifetime. He ordered Duyet's tomb to be flattened and surrounded by chains. He also had the tomb symbolically lashed 100 times.

The General's status was restored under later emperors, and a shrine has been erected for him in Gia-Dinh province. (See Chapter 11, places of interest.)

Petrus Ky

Unlucky in politics and diplomacy, Petrus Ky (Truong Vinh Ky) turned his knowledge of both the East and West to more scholarly applications. He spoke ten languages, was the author of scores of textbooks, and was one of the first newspaper men in Vietnam. Many books from outside Vietnam were translated by Petrus Ky adding immensely to the culture of Vietnam. He died in 1898 at the age of 61 after spending his last years in poverty. Today, he is highly revered and a statue of him is in Saigon. The largest boy's high school and one of the longest avenues in Saigon bear his name.

Phan Thanh Gian

A self-made Mandarin, who passed the doctorate exam at the age of 29, Phan Thanh Gian is remembered in Vietnam not only as a good administrator, but also a man of letters. He became the country's first Ambassador to a European nation when he went to France in 1858 to negotiate a cease-fire with the French, who had bombarded Da-Nang and taken three of the eastern provinces.

He was considered successful, and the French agreed to move out of the provinces with the exception of a few military bases. The French stipulated that the Vietnamese must pay the costs of supporting the expeditionary forces. A Vietnamese underground did not accept this and rallied support against the invaders. The French marched southward in 1867 to take the southern provinces.

Phan Thanh Gian wanted the Emperor Tu Due to rally the whole nation against the invaders, but he was not successful in getting the emperor to act. Because he was unable to get a peace treaty with the French, or an agreement to fight them from Emperor Tu Doc, he planned to destroy himself. He went on a hunger strike and as he had not died after two weeks, he took poison on August 4, 1867.

Besides being Vietnam's first Ambassador to France, Phan Thanh Gian was known for his poems and his historical writings, and once served as Governor of the southern provinces and devoted himself to developing the area.

When the Vietnamese regained their independence from the French in 1955, a long, narrow, tree-lined street, (where I happened to live in Saigon), was named for Phau Thanh Glan, who told his sons before his death, "Do not collaborate with the French."