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These findings led Durkheim to conclude that there are social forces external to the individual which influence suicide rates. He related his explanation to the idea of social solidarity and to two types of bonds within society – social integration and social regulation. Durkheim argued that people who were strongly integrated into social groups, and whose desires and aspirations were regulated by social norms, were less likely to commit suicide. From this he deduced four types of suicide, in accordance with the relative presence or absence of integration and regulation.

1 Egoistic suicides are marked by low integration and occur when an individual becomes isolated or when their ties to a social group are weakened or broken. For example, the low rates of suicide among Catholics could be explained by their strong community, while the personal and moral freedom of Protestants meant that they ‘stand alone’ before God. Marriage protects against suicide by integrating the individual into a stable social relationship, while single people remain more isolated.

2 Anomic suicide is caused by a lack of social regulation. By this, Durkheim referred to the condition of anomie, when people are rendered ‘normless’ as a result of rapid change or economic instability. The loss of a fixed point of reference for norms and desires – such as in times of economic upheaval or in personal troubles such as divorce – can upset the balance between people’s circumstances and their desires such that they no longer know how to carry on.

3 Altruistic suicide occurs when an individual is ‘over-integrated’ – social bonds are too strong – and comes to value the group more than him- or herself. In such a case, suicide becomes a sacrifice for the ‘greater good’. Japanese kamikaze pilots or Islamist suicide bombers are examples. Durkheim saw these as more common in traditional societies where mechanical solidarity prevails.

4 The final type is fatalistic suicide. Although Durkheim saw this as of little contemporary relevance, it occurs when an individual is overregulated by society. The oppression of the individual in dictatorial regimes can result in feelings of powerlessness and hopelessness.

Figure 1.1 Age-standardized suicide rates, both sexes, 2016

Source: WHO (2018a).

Suicide rates vary across societies but are also quite stable within particular societies over time. Durkheim took this as evidence that there are consistent social forces that influence suicide rates, and therefore we can see that general social patterns can be detected even within individual actions.