Читать книгу Solar Water Heating--Revised & Expanded Edition - Bob Ramlow - Страница 8

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HISTORY

THE SUN IS THE CENTER of our solar system. The energy it releases warms our planet and powers all life on earth. Through photosynthesis, solar energy is transformed into organic matter — the food that makes our life possible. The fossil fuels we use are actually stored solar energy. Solar energy is also incredibly abundant. Half a day’s sunlight falling on the US provides enough energy to run our country for one year.

We often think that modern societies were the first to use solar energy. Not true. Early cave dwellers preferred caves that had openings facing southeast. This allowed the morning sun to warm them up without overheating in the warm months. Native Americans in the Southwest oriented their pueblo dwellings so the low winter sun would heat the buildings by direct solar radiation. Cliffs and overhangs blocked the sun during the summer months, helping to keep the dwellings cooler when the sun was high in the sky.

The ancient Greeks, with a climate that was sunny almost year round, built their houses to take advantage of the sun’s rays during the moderately cool winters and to avoid the sun’s heat during the summer. Modern excavations of many classic Greek cities show that individual homes were oriented toward the south and entire cities were planned to allow equal access to the winter sun. It is interesting to note that by 500 bc, when the Greeks had almost completely deforested their whole country and needed to find a reliable alternative fuel source, they chose solar energy.

The Roman Empire advanced solar technology by adapting home-building design to various climates, using clear window coverings, such as glass, to enhance the effectiveness of solar heating and expanding solar architecture to include greenhouses and huge public bath houses. Solar architecture became so much a part of Roman life that sunrights guarantees were eventually enacted into Roman law. This society depleted its forest resource as well.

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the use of glass to enhance solar gain in buildings was mostly forgotten. Interest in passive solar architecture and greenhouses was rekindled during the Renaissance. As technologies advanced, glass manufacturing was revived, resulting in an increased use of glass windows. This also made large greenhouses possible for agricultural purposes as well as for recreation.

In the 1700s, a leading naturalist named Horace de Saussure began to experiment with solar hot boxes. These precursors to today’s active solar collectors were simple insulated boxes painted black on the inside and with one side made of glass. They were very similar to today’s solar cookers and, in fact, many early experimenters used their hot boxes for cooking. Many of the solar principles we use today were identified during those early experiments. Unfortunately, these experiments resulted in few successful applications.

During the late 1800s, domestic water piped directly into homes became more common. Like today, this water supply was cold. People soon wanted hot running water. At first, all water heaters were either coal or wood fired. In 1891 Clarence M. Kemp patented the world’s first commercial solar water heater, called the “Climax.” It was a black-painted water tank mounted in an insulated box with one side made of glass.

The Climax was instantly popular in California, where it could be used year round. Thousands of Climaxes and similar systems were installed in a short time. They all fall into what we now call “batch-type” solar water heaters: the sun heats the water directly in the tank(s) and the hot water is stored right in the collector tank(s).

In 1909 a California engineer named William J. Bailey began selling a new system he called the “Day and Night” solar water heater. It consisted of a solar collector and a separate storage tank mounted above the collector. His tanks were among the first to be insulated for better heat retention, and his collectors consisted of a pipe grid attached to a flat plate and enclosed in a compact, glazed and insulated enclosure. Cold water dropped into the collector, where it was heated by the sun. As the water was heated, it rose into the insulated storage tank for later use. Today, we call these heaters “flat plate” collectors.

In 1913 a freak cold snap hit southern California and many Day and Night collectors froze and burst. To eliminate future freezing problems, Bailey installed a coil of pipe within the storage tank to act as a heat exchanger. Then he used an alcohol and water mixture as the antifreeze solution for his heat exchange medium. As the sun warmed the solar fluid (or heat transfer fluid), it rose to the storage tank heat exchanger. As the heat from the solar fluid was transferred to the water in the storage tank, the solar fluid cooled and dropped back to the collectors for further heating. This system is described today as a “closed-loop” solar water heating system.

Between 1920 and 1930, huge deposits of natural gas were found in the Los Angeles area. To capitalize on this new, cheap fuel source, Bailey began to manufacture a thermostatically controlled gas water heater. Sales of his gas water heater took off, and sales of solar water heaters plummeted. Gas companies offered generous incentives to hook up to their new gas lines, further hindering sales of solar heaters. Bailey made his last batch of solar water heaters in 1941.

During this same time period, entrepreneurs took the California solar water heater designs to Florida and met with great success. In a building boom between 1935 and 1941, up to 60,000 systems were installed. More than half the population of Miami used solar water heaters by 1941, and 80 percent of the homes built between 1937 and 1941 were solar equipped.

World War II all but halted solar water heater installations. Copper was a major component of solar water heaters, and the use of copper was frozen for all nonmilitary use. When the war was over, solar companies came back, but other factors soon led to their decline. Existing solar water heaters were too small to meet the new, increased demand for automatic washing machines, automatic dishwashers, and other similar appliances. In a final blow, electrical rates fell to half the cost they had been before the war, making electric water heating much more affordable. In an aggressive campaign to increase electrical consumption, Florida Power and Light even offered free installation of electric water heaters. By this time, many of the original, aging solar water heaters were experiencing leaking tanks and plugged pipes. Many homeowners found it cheaper to install an inexpensive electric water heater than to fix their solar water heating systems.

In the United States, the 1950s and ’60s were years of unbridled energy consumption. For all but a few people, solar energy was a nonissue. This changed with the first Arab oil embargo in 1973, when Americans experienced long lines at gas stations, limited supplies of other oil products, such as heating fuel, and energy prices that doubled and tripled. President Jimmy Carter helped make energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy a national priority, symbolized by his donning a sweater and installing a solar water heater on the White House roof.

The oil embargo profoundly changed the United States. Coming at the end of the Vietnam War, it added to America’s realization of its vulnerability. For the first time since World War II, Americans looked at the way they used energy. Consumers began to demand higher energy-efficiency standards in everything from homes to automobiles. People also looked to renewable energy sources to replace some of the fossil fuels they were using.

The whole nation took on the challenge of reducing its dependence on oil from the Middle East. Renewable energy sources were rediscovered, and new companies sprouted everywhere to fill the growing demand. Government spending on renewable energy research and development increased from about $1 million to more than $400 million. While this was a small fraction of the attention and money given to the nuclear industry, it was a dramatic change nonetheless.

During the late ’70s and early ’80s, installing solar energy systems was seen as patriotic. The federal government, as well as many state governments, passed legislation encouraging the use of solar energy systems through tax credits. Federal incentives combined with state incentives (where available) often offset more than 50 percent of the cost of many renewable energy systems. A new renewable energy boom began. People looked to wind-powered electric systems, active space heating systems, advanced passive solar-heating systems, the newly emerging solar electric systems, and advances in energy-saving technologies as well as the old reliable solar water heaters.

Most of the solar energy companies that sprang up in the 1980s were reliable firms that installed quality systems. Unfortunately, with the general public’s headlong plunge into the use of renewables, a few companies selling inferior products and doing inferior work joined the fray. Some brought products to the market without proper testing. Others just wanted to make a quick buck and didn’t care if they were taking advantage of well-intentioned consumers. Although most renewable-energy systems were of good quality, the minority that weren’t gave solar a bad name.

The young solar industry was experiencing the typical growing pains that come with most emerging technologies and took steps to correct the problems. The federal government, as well as many state governments, also stepped in to ensure higher quality.

This move toward renewable energy did not sit well with those who profited from selling fossil fuels. After the most expensive presidential campaign ever, financed in part by oil interests, Ronald Reagan became president of the United States. His presidency heralded a return to fossil fuels. One of his first acts as president was to remove the solar water heater that President Carter had installed on the White House. Between 1981 and 1986, Reagan effectively gutted the US solar industry. He negotiated a repeal of the tax credit legislation for renewables that was in effect. He reduced funding for renewable energy by 90 percent. He also spearheaded a massive campaign to discredit renewable energy. The result was a 91 percent drop in the sales of solar hot water collectors between 1984 and 1986. The solar market in North America from the 1980s through the late 1990s was primarily supported by customers who wanted to invest in renewable energy for environmental reasons. For an in-depth analysis of this subject, I invite you to read Who Owns the Sun? by Daniel Berman and John O’Connor. Their thorough and thought-provoking book will change the way you look at energy and politics forever.

While North America was abandoning its use of renewable energy, virtually all other developed nations in the world continued to embrace renewables and energy efficiency. As a result of this continued effort, our European and Asian trading partners reduced their energy consumption in relation to gross national product by as much as one half that of North Americans. And while maintaining a similar lifestyle, they also reduced the energy need to half that of the United States. Some countries, such as Israel, require that solar water heaters be installed on all new dwellings and businesses. Developing nations are also embracing renewable energy technologies over traditional fossil-fuel energy sources. Although their track record is not perfect, their attitude toward renewable energy is significantly better than that of North Americans.

Figure 1.1: US energy consumption, 2008

In Figure 1.1, you can see the breakdown of the total energy consumption for the US in 2008. Renewable energy accounted for only seven percent! Solar, both thermal and electric, made up only one percent of the renewable energy share — only 0.07 percent of the total.

Now that we’ve covered history and the present, we need to look at our future. If what happened in the past carries on through tomorrow, we are headed down a dark and dirty path. One percent of only seven percent is not good enough and needs to change now. Let’s do all we can to make our children’s future brighter.