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Russell L. Meek

Introduction

Creation undergirds the Old and New Testaments. If Yahweh did not create the heavens and the earth—and all within them—then we should abandon the rest of the Bible as well. If Yahweh is not creator, then he also is not redeemer. If Yahweh is not creator, then there is no exodus, no giving of Torah, no judgment through exile, no restoration through repentance, no future hope in the Messiah, no incarnation, no cross, no resurrection. If Yahweh is not creator, then indeed, “we are of all people most to be pitied” (1 Cor 15:19b ESV).

This chapter will look primarily at the creation accounts in Gen 1–2 to illustrate the Old Testament’s view of creation. We will also examine creation texts in the wisdom and prophetic books in order to demonstrate how Genesis’s creation account informs the theology of the Old Testament, particularly with regard to its description of Yahweh’s character and the connection between creation and redemption in the Old Testament. Next, this chapter examines how the New Testament, in particular the good news of Jesus’s death, resurrection, and ascension, informs the Old Testament’s creation theology. We will find that the Bible begins with God’s creating the universe and placing humans in the garden of Eden and ends with God’s recreating the universe and placing humans in a new garden of Eden—a place of perfect fellowship with him. This redemption—and new creation—occurs through the work of Christ on the cross and is founded on Yahweh’s creative work in the first chapters of Genesis. Before that time, though, we will see that Christians wait longingly for Jesus’s ultimate redemption and work to restore the created order through reclaiming humanity’s role as priest-kings. The church would not properly understand this responsibility without a clear understanding of the Old Testament’s theology of creation. First, however, we will briefly contemplate the relationship between creation and the gospel.

Creation and the Gospel

My faith tradition has no problem recognizing the personal implications of Jesus’s death and resurrection and the consequent sanctification that occurs as Christians continually submit to Christ’s lordship. We likewise stand strong on the doctrine of Yahweh’s creation ex nihilo of the universe as depicted in Genesis. We preach Christ crucified, urge sinners to repent, promise new life in him—both in this world and the next—and yet often fail to acknowledge the implications of the gospel on our doctrine of creation. I don’t mean that the gospel should impact our view of how God created or that God created or when God created. Rather, I mean that we sometimes forget that the gospel impacts all of theology, including—perhaps especially including—how we view creation.

Jesus Christ makes all things new. This applies not only to the personal implications of a life surrendered to his lordship but also to how we understand and relate to the theology of creation today. First, redemption rests on creation. If there is no creation, there is no redemption. The statement sounds silly, but it’s nonetheless true. It’s true first of all because, of course, Yahweh had to create in order to redeem. There can be no new heavens and new earth if there’s no old heavens and old earth. If there’s no one for whom to die, then of course Christ doesn’t die. But it’s also true because Yahweh’s power to create is the same power to redeem.

Do you ever wonder if God is faithful to save those who call upon his name in faith? You only have to look out your window (or maybe walk through park if you live in an urban area) to see he’s powerful to save. That tree and that grass and that flower and that bird and that squirrel—Yahweh created those. Their presence in this world declares God’s faithfulness and goodness toward us, the crowning of his work in creation.1

Creation affirms that God is powerful enough to enact the gospel.2 We may think for a moment that maybe God can’t forgive us, that maybe our sins are too great, or we’re just out of his reach. We may think—if only briefly—that the grip of sin or the world or the old man is too great for God to overcome. If we think such thoughts, we only have to observe the mountains, the rivers, the seas to know our doubts are unfounded. These most powerful things in the world—waves that engulf, rivers that run wild, mountains that tower above us—God created them. He’s more powerful than the sturdiest mountain, the wildest sea, the fastest river. When we look around and behold the world’s natural wonders, we can know that God is more powerful than them because God created them. And if he’s more powerful than the strongest created things, then surely he’s powerful enough to save us frail humans.

Creation makes us without excuse. With Paul in Romans we can look at creation and affirm that “his invisible attributes, namely his eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly perceived, ever since the creation of the world, in the things that have been made” (Rom 1:20 ESV). And because of that we, like Paul says, are without excuse. So creation does three things (and probably a lot more): it quells our doubts if we wonder about God’s faithfulness; it denies our concern that God is not powerful enough to rescue us; and it makes us all without excuse on that day.

Analysis of Genesis 1:1—2:4

Genesis 1–2 contains two accounts of creation. The first (1:1—2:4) broadly overviews Yahweh’s creative activity in first six days (seven if we count the first Sabbath). The second (2:5–25) narrows its focus to the jewel of Yahweh’s creation: man and woman. These two accounts have much to say about Yahweh, his character, his creation, humans, and human purpose.

A Few Important Differences

The Bible opens with the simple statement that “in the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.”3 This is most certainly a faith statement, a polemical stance taken against the “gods” of Israel’s neighbors.4 Other ancient Near Eastern cultures had their own creation stories, stories that narrated the beginning quite a bit differently.5 First, our creation account has only one protagonist: God himself. There’s no other god Yahweh must battle. He goes about his creative work alone. That the Bible does not even mention rival gods highlights the fact that God has no rivals. He is a singular God, the only God who creates, the only God in existence.

Second, creation doesn’t result from a battle between God and his enemies. Verse 2 paints a dim picture of universe before Yahweh sets things in order—it’s formless, void, and dark—but there’s not even a hint at a cosmological struggle between Yahweh and the waters or chaos or any other god.6 Other ancient Near Eastern creation stories, such as Enuma Elish, portray the epic struggle to create vividly, with one god winning out over others and ascending to the top of the pantheon. In Yahweh’s case, though, there is no such struggle because there are no rival gods to fight.7

A Crucial Similarity

One key similarity exists between the Genesis creation account and the other ancient Near Eastern creation accounts: all of the texts presuppose the existence of deity. Those in the ancient Near East would think it absurd even to consider that there could be an explanation for creation that excluded God/gods. The ancient Near Eastern audience, whether followers of Yahweh or not, would agree with the psalmist that “a fool says in his ‘there is no God’” (Ps 14:1). Likewise, the creation accounts contain no speculation about God’s/gods’ origin because such speculation would be foolishness.8

This crucial similarity between the creation accounts is important for Christian theology in the West today because we are so interested in the origins debate. We of course hold firmly that Yahweh created the entire universe just like Genesis testifies that he did. But, in an increasingly post-Christian West, rather than arguing over the how of creation—this author holds to a literal seven-day creation—perhaps we should emphasize the who of creation, just as the biblical account does. Yahweh himself, the same God who sent his son Jesus to die for our sins, created the entire universe.

Yahweh’s Word and Work

Rather than creation resulting from a cosmological battle, creation results from the “word and work” of the creator God.9 He speaks, and existence happens. Yahweh creates by divine command for the first five days of creation. He simply speaks to bring into existence another piece of the puzzle: light, the heavens, dry land, vegetation, the sun and moon, fish and birds. On each of these days Yahweh created by his very word. He only had to speak and all of the world came forth. As Dyrness has stated, God displayed “creative power that is completely without analogy.”10 And perhaps this is why the Hebrew term bārā’ only appears in the Old Testament with God as its subject, with the “creative endeavors of human beings being expressed by other verbs.”11

Finally, on the sixth day God creates by work. Rather than speaking humanity into existence, he “makes” man in his image (Gen 1:26). The overview of creation in Gen 1:1–2:4 gives only the scantest details about this creative work, but the more focused account of humanity’s creation in Gen 2:5–25 completes the picture. Here we learn that Yahweh “formed” man from the dust (Gen 2:7) and later fashioned the woman out of his rib. Yahweh took a personal interest in creating humans, stooping to form us from the earth. Yahweh created humans in his own image. Yahweh breathed life into humans. And Yahweh gave humans dominion over the earth. Each these aspects of the creation of humanity has enormous implications for the Christian life specifically and the human life more generally.

Humans, crafted in God’s image, are God’s image bearers in the earth. That means we participate in the same type of work Yahweh participates in—creative rule. As Goldingay has stated, “Genesis 1–2 imply that humanity’s chief and highest end is to work for God in the world.”12 That work certainly involves creation care—humans are stewards of the rest of creation. And since the fall that work also involves priestly work, or mediating between God and other humans as Yahweh’s image bearers. Of course, Jesus Christ is the one Mediator between God and man (1 Tim 2:5), and yet Christians today must also boldly proclaim the gospel so that humans may be reconciled to God. These two roles—mediator and ruler—are entrusted to us at the very beginning of time.

Creation in the Old Testament

Creation in Job

The book of Job presents Yahweh as all-powerful creator both in Job’s speeches about Yahweh and in Yahweh’s response to Job. After Job’s horrific attacks from the accuser (Satan) and consistent defense of his innocence in the face of his interlocutors, Yahweh confronts Job in chapter 38. Yahweh fires off a series of questions in chapters 38–41 that highlight his power in creation and resulting sovereignty over all things. He laid the earth’s foundations, he put the stars and moon and sun in place, he said to the sea, “thus far and no more,” he set light and darkness in its place, he ordained rain and snow and hail, he feeds the animals and gave them their distinctive features and instincts. What’s more, he created Behemoth and Leviathan—beasts humans cannot contain—thus demonstrating his great power. Yahweh’s point is clear: we humans are “not as strong as we think we are.”13 As we cower before animals we cannot overpower, so we should submit to the power and sovereignty he displayed in creation.

Creation in Psalms

Several psalms extol the Lord for the attributes he displayed in creation: wisdom, power, sovereignty, faithfulness. Psalm 33, for example, connects God’s work in creation with God’s faithful love, or hesed. The psalmist here sees God’s love and faithfulness to Israel expressed in creation itself.14 The grand narrative of Yahweh’s special relationship with his people therefore did not begin with his covenant with Abraham in Genesis 12. It began much earlier than that, when Yahweh spoke and the heavens and earth and all within them came forth. Psalm 33 further indicates that Yahweh’s creation was not a static event, a one-time display of greatness and mercy. No, Yahweh’s creative work is ongoing as he fashions the hearts of all the earth’s inhabitants (Ps 33:14–15). Verse 8 points out the appropriate response of humans in light of Yahweh’s creative work: to fear him.15

Psalm 89 likewise extols the majesty of Yahweh because of his work in creation. This psalm declares that the heavens and earth—and all within them—belong to Yahweh because he created them (Ps 89:11). However, it quickly moves in a different direction. After proclaiming Yahweh’s faithfulness and sovereignty in creation, the psalmist reminds the Lord of his covenant with David, thus connecting Yahweh’s faithfulness in creation with his faithfulness to the people of Israel.16 Yahweh’s care and faithfulness and sovereignty in creation assures his people of his care and faithfulness and sovereignty in their lives. Yet the psalmist laments in vv. 38–45 that the Lord has rejected the Davidic servant for a time, then asks in 46–51 how long God will be distant from his people and implores him to remember. The psalm ends with a bold declaration of praise.

The wonder of this psalm—and its importance for a theology of creation—is that it connects Yahweh’s work in creation with Yahweh’s concern for his people. The psalmist honestly reflects on the current crisis—there is no Davidic ruler in Israel, God is silent, the covenant seems demolished—and bases his certainty that Yahweh will hear on the very fact that Yahweh created all things. The psalmist proclaims that we can know that Yahweh hears, remembers, and acts on behalf of his people because he created this whole world. This clear connection between Yahweh’s hesed in creation and his hesed toward his people is a sure foundation on which the people of Israel—and we today—stand. Indeed, “Blessed be Yahweh forever. Amen and amen.”

Creation in Proverbs

Proverbs contributes to the Old Testament understanding of creation by highlighting that Yahweh crafted the world through wisdom. Yahweh did not create haphazardly. He did not set about building a tower before counting the cost, as the foolish are wont to do (Luke 14:25–33). No, Proverbs tells us that Yahweh “fathered [wisdom] at the beginning of his deeds” (8:22).17 Wisdom was there before Gen 1:1 (Prov 8:23–24). Birthing wisdom was the first of his acts, and the rest of creative activity flowed out of it.18 Importantly, personified wisdom does not create, thus further clarifying that wisdom itself is not a goddess but rather one of Yahweh’s many attributes that elicit worship and awe from his creation.19

Thus, whereas Psalms assures us that creation displays Yahweh’s faithfulness to his people, Proverbs tells us that it also displays his wisdom. This is not so difficult to see when we look at the world around us. Trees and animals and bugs all create after their kind. The world works together in an infinitely complex ecosystem. Rains water the earth. The earth produces food. Life continues. These things happen not by chance but by the wisdom of our creator. It is not haphazard; it is not an accident. It is Yahweh’s wise work, Prov 8 assures us.

Consequently, humans also should seek wisdom. As Garrett points out, Prov 8:26 indicates that, “Humans, as dust, are part of the created world and cannot live contrary to the order by which the world was created. By Wisdom the formless, chaotic dust became Adam, the human race. People who reject Wisdom, therefore, are certain to return to their prior state.”20 Creation assures us of Yahweh’s goodwill toward us, and it also assures us of the proper path to take in life—the path of wisdom, the path marked out in Prov 1–9. Bartholomew and O’Dowd rightly point out that “God has built, or etched, an order into the world, and wisdom, personified as a woman, is the key to discerning it . . . She can guide us in walking wisely in this life because she knows the places that God carved out for us.”21 A failure to recognize Yahweh’s faithfulness, Yahweh’s wisdom, and our proper role in light of these two features exhibited so clearly in creation is a dire failure indeed.

Creation in Isaiah

The book of Isaiah, particularly chapters 43–45, is rife with creation theology.22 Having proclaimed judgment on God’s people for their idolatry and waywardness, the prophet now encourages the exiles in Babylon with a word of hope that he bases on Yahweh’s creation of the entire world and his special creation of Israel as a nation.

There are several important items to note in these passages that impact how the people of Israel, and we today, should understand the theological importance of creation. First, Yahweh states plainly that he is the only true God (43:10–12), a fact attested previously in the creation account. Second, Yahweh indicates that he has the right to discipline his people because he created them (43:14–15).23 By extension, his role as creator gives him the right to do what he will with his creation. Third, Yahweh uses creational language—e.g., “seas” and “waters”—to describe his creation of Israel.24 In doing this Yahweh demonstrates that his care in creating the world is consistent with his care in creating Israel. Further, he shows that just as he made the entire world in a special, spectacular event, so he formed Israel in a unique way and for a unique purpose. Just as the entire world was created for a particular purpose by his word, so Israel was created for a purpose through his word.25

Fourth, because Yahweh created the world—and Israel in particular—his people can be assured of his continued care for them. In 44:2–5 he bases his comforting words on the very fact of his creation. This should not be lost on readers today: because Yahweh is the creator, he is the caregiver. He is not a distant God who set the world on its own after creation. Instead, his creation of the world confirms his care of the world. He is a benevolent lord who will see to the protection of his people, his special creation. Fifth and finally, Isaiah 43–45 argues on the basis of creation that the proper response to God is worship. That is, because Yahweh is the only God, the God who disciplines his people with their best interests in mind, the God who fashioned the nation of Israel, and the God who cares for his people, Israel should worship him and him alone.26 In sum, in these three chapters Yahweh makes a progressive case based on his creative work that he alone is to be worshiped. The theology of creation, then, should impact our theology of worship, for by virtue of his creative work—and all it entails—Yahweh alone is worthy of adoration and adulation.27

Creation and the Gospel

What, then, becomes of the doctrine of creation when we move into the New Testament? How does the Old Testament’s theology of creation impact our understanding of the birth, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ? Should we read the New Testament differently, or for that matter the Old Testament differently, because of how we understand God’s creative work as depicted in the Old Testament? We will address these important matters through examining three aspects of the New Testament’s theology of creation: 1) Jesus Christ is creator; 2) creation is groaning in anticipation for the day of full redemption; and 3) Jesus Christ is redeemer.

Jesus Christ Is Creator

John 1:1–3 (ESV) states, “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was in the beginning with God. All things were made through him, and without him was not any thing made that was made.”28 The author of Hebrews confirms John’s view of Jesus as creator when he states, “Long ago, at many times and in many ways, God spoke to our fathers by the prophets, but in these last days he has spoken to us by his Son, whom he appointed the heir of all things, through whom also he created the world” (Heb 1:2 ESV). Paul concurs: “yet for us there is one God, the Father, from whom are all things and for whom we exist, and one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and through whom we exist” (1 Cor 8:6 ESV).

Polhill points out that John 1:1 “contains three basic affirmations that are fundamental to Christian theology”: the Word existed before all things, there is a “relational difference” between the Word and God, and the Word and God are one.29 Having established the preexistent nature of Christ (John states that Christ is the Word in v. 14) as well as the unity of and distinction between the Father and Christ, John addresses Christ’s role in creation: Christ is the agent through whom all of creation came into existence (John 1:3). This confirms the unity of the Trinity, but also demonstrates the Son’s separate role in creation as its agent. Further, Ridderbos points out, “The range of action of God-in-Christ at the creation coincides with the range of action of the Word in his incarnation. Therefore Christ is the light of the world (cf. 8:12) and by his coming into the world enlightens every person (1:9).”30 Thus, our theology of creation impacts our understanding of Christ’s work his incarnation, for they reflect each other.

First Corinthians 8:6 confirms our understanding of the unity of the Father and Son in stating that the all things are from the Father and through the Son. Paul furthers our understanding of the Son’s role in creation by stating we exist through Christ. Thus, not only did the Father create us through the Son but also the Son’s creative work is ongoing. All humans who have breath in their nostrils are current recipients of Christ’s grace in upholding creation. This is called common grace and is true whether or not a person knows Christ personally. It is one more indication of God’s great care for creation both in its initial conception during those six days at the beginning of time and also now.

In sum, the New Testament witness fully confirms that Jesus Christ is the creator of all things. The Trinitarian implications of Christ as creator cannot be overlooked: when John and Paul and the author Hebrews proclaim Christ as the creator of all things they identify him with the Father and give a small insight into the mystery of the Trinity. Genesis testifies that God created all things, and the New Testament teaches that through Christ all things were created—indeed, the Father and the Son are one. All the praise and honor owed to the Father for his faithfulness and goodness in creation should be likewise given to the Son.

Creation is Groaning

Work is hard. Famine is a real concern in many parts of the world. Blights and locusts and droughts destroy crops. The land doesn’t yield to humans like we want it to. Genesis lets us in on why things are the way they should be: Adam and Eve sinned against our good and gracious God. God created all things “good,” even “very good.” He told Adam to work the ground and it would yield to him. Adam and his wife could eat from whatever tree they wanted—that is, whatever tree except the one tree. And we know the rest of the story. They ate from the tree and God punished them and here we are today where work is hard and bad things happen.

The New Testament says something about our relationship with the rest of creation—we caused it a lot of pain. Our sin through Adam resulted in the cursing of the ground and now creation is groaning:

For the creation waits with eager longing for the revealing of the sons of God. For the creation was subjected to futility, not willingly, but because of him who subjected it, in hope that the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to corruption and obtain the freedom of the glory of the children of God. For we know that the whole creation has been groaning together in the pains of childbirth until now. And not only the creation, but we ourselves, who have the firstfruits of the Spirit, groan inwardly as we wait eagerly for adoption as sons, the redemption of our bodies. (Rom 8:19–23 ESV)

Scholars have interpreted this passage myriad ways,31 but the overall intent is clear: creation suffers along with the rest of humanity because of our sin. And like us, creation anticipates that day when Christ will set all things right. We will return to this crucial issue in discussing how creation relates to the Christian church today; for now it suffices to note the interrelatedness of human sin and the suffering of creation.

Christ Is Redeemer

Finally, the New Testament clearly shows Jesus Christ as the redeemer of both humanity and the created world (e.g., Matt 1:21; Luke 2:11; 19:10; Acts 4:12; 13:23; 1 Tim 1:15; Titus 2:13; etc.). The narrative arc of the Bible is that God—in Christ—created a good world, humans bungled it all by rebelling against God’s Word, and then God set about a plan of redemption that climaxed in the death, resurrection, and ascension of his own Son, the one through whom creation was made.

Christ inaugurated his redemptive work two millennia ago when he lived a sinless life and died a sinner’s death. He took upon himself all of God’s wrath so that those who believe in him would experience God’s forgiveness and kindness toward sinners (Rom 5:9; 2 Cor 5:21; 1 Thess 5:9). In this present moment, we can experience the forgiveness of sins and new life in Christ; however, we also experience the sting of death in this life, in this creation damaged by our sin. But Jesus promises that he will one day return and create a new heavens and a new earth, a place where there is no sin and no death and no mourning (Rev 21). Christ the Creator and Christ the Redeemer will re-create all that we have destroyed. Maranatha!

Creation and the Christian Life Today

How should Christians live differently in light of the Trinity’s work in creating and sustaining the world? Our discussion of Genesis indicated that God’s original intent for humans was that we function as priest-kings in right relationship with him. This was certainly the case with Adam and Eve, who lived in Yahweh’s presence in the garden of Eden, exercised dominion over creation, and enjoyed right relationship with each other. Of course, all that changed when they asserted their own authority and ate from the forbidden tree.

Genesis 3:15 sets the stage for the rest of the biblical narrative: a seed will come who will crush Satan’s head. That seed, we now know, is Jesus Christ, who indeed conquered death and crushed Satan’s head through his own death, burial, and resurrection. Being in Christ means, at least in part, that we have returned to that original role as priest-kings (see, e.g., Exod 19:6; 1 Pet 2:9). There is much to explore about how a theology of creation impacts the church’s role as priest-kings—not the least of which is the high priority we should place on creation care32—but here we will focus only on worship.

As we saw above, the Old Testament is filled with adulation for God because of his creative work. Creation displays God character, power, might, majesty, wisdom, sovereignty, and lovingkindness toward his people. Several months ago I stood on a beach and beheld the wonder of the Pacific Ocean. Such sights may be old hat for people who live close to the ocean, but for a guy from central Arkansas, it was breathtaking. I was overcome by the sheer beauty and majesty and danger of those waters that crashed against the beach. I had no choice but to praise the God who said, “as far as here you may come, but no farther” (Job 38:11). Such was the posture of the biblical writers, and we do well to remember God’s work in creation and worship him for it.

Our worship, however, must be properly focused. My father was the type of man who loved to be outside hunting or fishing, tinkering with this or that, and sometimes just sitting there, enjoying the hot sun or cool night. Whenever I would talk to my dad about Jesus, he always told me he wasn’t interested in Jesus or church because he experienced God outdoors. I’m sure there are many people just like him, people who marvel at creation but do not know the Creator. In essence, the worship the thing that was made rather than the One who made it (see Rom 1). Knowing Christ means knowing who created the waves, the birds, the trees. Thus, it is not enough simply to marvel at creation. We must allow creation to fulfill its proper role in pointing us toward the One worthy of worship. Likewise, we fulfill part of our role as priest-kings as we point others toward the One who created this magnificent world.

Questions for Discussion

1. How does God’s creation in the first few chapters of Genesis set the tone for the rest of the biblical witness?

2. What does it mean that all things were made through and for Christ? What is a practical way that Christ’s work in creation applies to the Christian life today?

3. Why should Christians work to develop a theology of creation? How does creation impact what we do on a daily basis?

4. How and why does a proper view of creation impact how Christians understand the gospel?

Bibliography and Recommended Reading

Bartholomew, Craig G., and Ryan P. O’Dowd. Wisdom Literature: A Theological Intro-duction. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2011.

Beale, Greg. We Become What We Worship: A Biblical Theology of Idolatry. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2008.

Berry, R. J., ed. The Care of Creation: Focusing Concern and Action. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2000.

Borgen, Peder. “Creation, Logos, and the Son: Observations on John 1:1–18 and 5:17–18.” ExAud 3 (1987) 88–97.

Bouma-Prediger, Steven. For the Beauty of the Earth: A Christian Vision for Creation Care. Engaging Culture. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2010.

Brueggemann, Walter. Theology of the Old Testament: Testimony, Dispute, Advocacy. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1997.

Clifford, Richard J. “Cosmogonies in the Ugaritic Texts and in the Bible.” Or 53 (1984) 203–19.

———. Proverbs: A Commentary. OTL. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1999.

———. “Psalm 89: A Lament over the Davidic Ruler’s Continued Failure.” HTR 73 (1980) 35–47.

Dyrness, William A. Themes in Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity, 1977.

Enns, Peter. Exodus. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000.

Fisher, Loren R. “Creation at Ugarit and in the Old Testament.” VT 15 (1965) 313–24.

Garrett, Duane A. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs. NAC 14. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1993.

Goldingay, John. Old Testament Theology. 3 vols. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2003.

Gunkel, Hermann. “The Influence of Babylonian Mythology upon the Biblical Creation Story.” In Creation in the Old Testament, edited by Bernhard W. Anderson, 25–52. Issues in Religion and Theology 6. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984.

Harner, Phillip B. “Creation Faith in Deutero-Isaiah.” VT 17 (1967) 298–306.

Hasel, Gerhard F. “The Polemical Nature of the Genesis Cosmology.” EQ 46 (1974) 81–102.

———. “The Significance of the Cosmology of Genesis 1 in Relation to Ancient Near Eastern Parallels.” AUSS 10 (1972) 1–14.

Johnston, Gordon H. “Genesis 1 and Ancient Egyptian Creation Myths.” BibSac 165 (2008) 178–94.

Lessing, Reed. “Yahweh versus Marduk: Creation Theology in Isaiah 40–55.” Concordia Journal 36 (2010) 234–44.

Levenson, Jon. Creation and the Persistence of Evil. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988.

Liederbach, Mark, and Seth Bible. True North: Christ, the Gospel, and Creation Care. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2012.

Mangum, Douglas T. “Creation Traditions in Isaiah 40–55: Their Origin and Purpose.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Upper Midwest Region of the SBL. St. Paul, MN. 27 March 2009.

Merrill, Eugene H. Everlasting Dominion: A Theology of the Old Testament. Nashville: B&H Academic, 2006.

Millard, Alan R. “A New Babylonian ‘Genesis Story.’” TynBul 18 (1967) 3–18.

Moo, Jonathan A., and Robert S. White. Let Creation Rejoice: Biblical Hope and Ecological Crisis. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2014.

Ollenburger, Ben C. “Isaiah’s Creation Theology.” ExAud 3 (1987) 54–71.

Perdue, Leo G. Proverbs. Interpretation. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2012.

Polhill, John B. John. NAC 26. Nashville: Holman Reference, 1992.

Ridderbos, Herman N. The Gospel of John: A Theological Commentary. Translated by John Vriend. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997.

Schnittjer, Gary E. The Torah Story: An Apprenticeship on the Pentateuch. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006.

Snyder, Howard A., and Joel Scandrett. Salvation Means Creation Healed: The Ecology of Sin and Grace. Overcoming the Divorce between Heaven and Earth. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2011.

Tyra, Steven W. “All Creatures are Martyrs: Martin Luther’s Cruciform Exegesis of Romans 8:19–22.” WTJ 76 (2014) 27–53.

———. “When Considering Creation, Simply Follow the Rule (of Faith): Patristic Exegesis of Romans 8:9–22 and the Theological Interpretation of Scripture.” JTI 8 (2014) 251–73.

Waltke, Bruce K. Proverbs 1–15. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004.

Walton, John H. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006.

———. The Lost World of Adam and Eve: Genesis 2–3 and the Origins Debate. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2015.

———. The Lost World of Genesis 1: Ancient Cosmology and the Origins Debate. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009.

Wilson, Gerald H. Psalms. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002.

1. See Goldingay, Israel’s Gospel, 69.

2. Ibid., 71. See also Brueggemann, 150–54.

3. Unless otherwise noted, Scripture quotations in this chapter are the author’s translation.

4. On the polemical nature of Gen 1, see Hasel, “Polemical Nature,” 81–102.

5. For comparisons between ancient Near Eastern creation accounts and Genesis, see, e.g., Gunkel, “Influence of Babylonian Mythology,” 25–52; Millard, “New Babylonian ‘Genesis Story,’” 3–18; Hasel, “Significance of the Cosmology of Genesis 1,” 1–14; Fisher, “Creation at Ugarit,” 313–24; Clifford, “Cosmogonies in the Ugaritic Texts,” 203–19. The most recent treatments of this issue come from John Walton. See Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought, 165–202; Walton, The Lost World of Genesis 1; Walton, The Lost World of Adam and Eve.

6. Johnston, “Genesis 1,” 179. Levenson (Creation and the Persistence of Evil, 66) acknowledges the lack of battle in Gen 1 but proposes its absence indicates it has already been won. See also Brueggemann, Old Testament Theology, 147.

7. Dyrness, Themes, 65.

8. See ibid., 63.

9. Ibid., 65.

10. Ibid., 66.

11. Merrill, Everlasting Dominion, 101.

12. Goldingay, Israel’s Gospel, 110.

13. Rich Mullins, “We Are Not as Strong as We Think We Are,” Songs (Reunion, 1996).

14. Golding, Israel’s Gospel, 57.

15. Wilson, Psalms, 558.

16. See Clifford, “Psalm 89,” 44–47.

17. Some early Christian scholars were quick to equate the personification of wisdom in Prov 8 with Jesus Christ. However, this connection is highly problematic theologically and not easily defended exegetically. For discussion, see Waltke, Proverbs 1–15, 127–30. For a brief history of interpretation of Prov 8:22 in early Christianity and Judaism, see Clifford, Proverbs, 98–99.

18. See Garrett, Proverbs, 108.

19. Clifford, Proverbs, 100. Contra Perdue, Proverbs, 142.

20. Garrett, Proverbs, 109.

21. Bartholomew and O’Dowd, Wisdom Literature, 89.

22. For discussion of Isaiah’s theology of creation in Isa 40–55, see Mangum, “Creation Traditions in Isaiah 40–55.”

Mangum rightly argues that Isaiah utilizes creation themes in order to demonstrate Yahweh’s superiority over other so-called gods in the ancient Near East. Also helpful is Lessing, “Yahweh versus Marduk,” 234–44.

23. Note also that Yahweh’s discipline is for his people’s good (Isa 43:14). He is not a sadist who punishes for the sake of punishment. This sentiment is repeated several times in the Bible (e.g., Prov 3:12; Heb 12:6; Rev 3:19).

24. For more discussion on the creation motif as it relates to the creation of the nation of Israel, see Schnittjer, The Torah Story, 232–34; Enns, Exodus, 39–42.

25. On the interrelated themes of creation and exodus in the latter half of Isaiah, see Harner, “Creation Faith in Deutero-Isaiah,” 298–306; Ollenburger, “Isaiah’s Creation Theology,” 54–71.

26. Note the sarcasm of 44:9–20, where Yahweh points out the absurdity of worshiping the created thing instead of the creator.

27. Lessing (“Yahweh Versus Marduk,” 234) points out that worship causes humans to become like that which we worship. We are always imaging something and, as creatures of Yahweh, it is crucial that we worship him alone. See also Beale, We Become What We Worship.

28. For a discussion of John’s reliance on Genesis for crafting John 1:1–18, see Borgen, “Creation, Logos, and the Son,” 88–97.

29. Polhill, John, 102.

30. Ridderbos, John, 36.

31. For an overview of patristic interpretation of this passage, see Tyra, “When Considering Creation,” 251–73. See also Tyra, “All Creatures Are Martyrs,” 27–53.

32. There are many excellent resources on how Christians should care for creation. See, among others, Bouma-Prediger, For the Beauty of the Earth; Liederbach and Bible, True North; Berry, ed., The Care of Creation; Snyder and Scandrett, Salvation Means Creation Healed; Moo and White, Let Creation Rejoice.