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CHAPTER 3

Chuang-tzu: Tales of Tao

Is not he who preserves the body and gives the fullest development

to the life, who establishes the attributes of the Tao and

clearly displays It, possessed of kingly qualities?

—Chuang-tzu, in Legge 1962, 311

Chuang-tzu (369–286 B.C.) stands with Lao-tzu as one of the most well-known and prolific founders of Taoism. His works, known as The Chuang-tzu, elucidate and illustrate Taoist concepts through colorful stories. Chuang-tzu’s writings deeply inspired Chinese philosophical, medical, and aesthetic theory in general and tai chi chuan and Zen Buddhism in particular. Zen teachers use his concepts and metaphors to convey principles that parallel those of Zen.

Chuang-tzu’s real name was Chuang Chou. Tzu means master and is a title of respect, and thus he is best known as Chuang-tzu, Master Chuang. Little is known about his personal life outside of his writings and a short biography, compiled by the historian Ssu-ma Ch’ien. Chuang-tzu grew up and lived in the state of Meng, part of the kingdom of Wei, where Lao-tzu spent most of his life. He was a contemporary of the famous Confucian scholar, Mencius, who wrote, “The words of Chuang-tzu and Mo-tzu fill the world” (Mencius, in Legge 1985, 9).

Chuang-tzu was well versed in the prominent philosophies of his day, along with the classics, but he made his preference for Taoism very clear. Unlike other Taoist writers, Chuang-tzu’s work takes issue with all other philosophies, especially Confucianism. He wrote numerous stories in which Taoist sages convince philosophers from other schools of Taoism’s wisdom. One of his favorite scenarios is in the form of dialogues between Confucius and Lao-tzu. Confucius, the younger man, questions Lao-tzu as if he were addressing a wise sage. In the end, Confucius is convinced that Taoism is in harmony with a profound truth that can enhance his Confucianist beliefs.

In a typical encounter, Confucius went to Lao-tzu and said, “I have read the Six Classics and consider myself an expert. Yet none of the seventy-two rulers whom I advise have ever put my ideas into practice! What am I doing wrong?”

Lao-tzu answered, “You may have read the Six Classics, but keep in mind that these are only footprints, not the shoes themselves. Look at nature. Each animal reproduces according to its nature. Some are live bearers, others lay eggs, to give you a few examples. Every species has its own nature and that nature cannot be altered! The Tao cannot be stopped. When you have the Tao there isn’t anything that you can’t do, but if you don’t have it, you can’t do anything!”

Confucius spent the next three months alone in his house, meditating on Lao-tzu’s words. When he returned to visit the Master, he told him, “I have it now! I understand that each animal reproduces in its own unique way in accordance with its own nature. I have my own part in the harmony. When I did not teach the rulers in harmony with the natural way, how could I expect to change them?”

Lao-tzu replied, “Now you have got it!” (Paraphrased from Chuang-tzu, Chapter 15, in Legge, 1962.) Thus, Lao-tzu helped Confucius learn to guide his actions by the hidden essence, not by external knowledge.

THE IMPORTANCE OF INNER FREEDOM

Chuang-tzu lived his philosophy, consistent with his principles. He was protective of his time and freedom and therefore chose a simple governmental job that left him plenty of time for fishing and philosophy. He had a small number of disciples who spent time with him in philosophical discussions, and he never let any of his professional endeavors compromise his self-determination.

One of the most famous stories about Chuang-tzu shows how much he valued life and freedom. King Wei of Chu heard about Chuang-tzu’s ability to express profound concepts with clarity and wit. One day the king sent messengers laden with gifts to invite Chuang-tzu to his court and offer him the position of prime minister. The messengers found Chuang-tzu quietly fishing. In a proud voice, the messenger said, “You have been honored by our king. He extends to you an invitation to become his minister.”

Chuang-tzu continued to fish. Then he smiled and said thoughtfully, “I am honored that the king would like to hire me for such an esteemed position as prime minister. But before I give you my answer, let me ask you a question. I have heard that the prince of Chu keeps a sacred tortoise who lived three thousand years carefully enclosed in a chest on the altar. Now I ask you, would that tortoise rather be dead and have his remains viewed and revered in a museum, or do you think he would prefer to be alive and splashing in the mud?”

The messengers could not help but answer, “Of course, the tortoise would rather be alive, playing in the mud.”

Chuang-tzu answered, “Then leave me now. I would rather be free to splash in the mud!” Chuang-tzu believed that people will live happy and satisfying lives if they are free to develop. He thought that each individual must be allowed to journey unhindered through the cycles of life.

RELATIVE KNOWLEDGE VS. THE ABSOLUTE WISDOM OF TAO

When the distinctions of true and false appeared, then Tao lost its wholeness. And when Tao lost its wholeness, individual bias began.

—Yutang 1948, 44

Chuang-tzu felt that people spent too much time disputing back and forth about every aspect of living. Too much talking takes people away from the Tao. “Words are [like] waves acted on by the wind,” he said, “the real point of the matters is lost” (Legge 1962, 214). Chuang-tzu lived during an unstable period in Chinese history, when people were continually disputing politics and philosophy. He believed that all of these arguments were relative. People argue because they have lost touch with the unity underlying the apparent distinctions: Tao precedes any differences.

Looked at through Tao, all perspectives are equal. Everything is part of the unity. Tao eludes any restrictive definition. It is everything and everywhere, the grounds and basis of wisdom. Lao-tzu pointed out that the person who thinks he knows does not really know, but the one who knows what he does not know is wise. Wisdom comes from inner intuition, the deeper nature of things. Opinion, knowledge, and learning are only impediments to wisdom. The Tao can never be found in worldly things. Chuang-tzu advised people to stay at peace with nature in order to truly know.

Throughout his writings, Chuang-tzu illustrated many of his points with examples from nature. He believed that the Way of nature is the Way of Tao. When nature is encouraged to thrive and permitted to follow its path without interference, it will develop just as it should. Each is uniquely suited to its own lifeworld. People should not try to impose their own design. Instead, they should find the inner pattern, and follow it. Artists should paint or draw spontaneously from nature, and creative inspiration will follow. Sometimes the inner pattern can only be known in terms of what it is not. Rejection of education and culturally learned limitations may be the necessary first step. The glow of true nature within can brighten the darkness of the unknown. The leap of intuition is more than a first step; it actually guides us on our journey. Reason, paradoxically, leads us astray.

Chuang-tzu explained with an example about horses. Horses’ hoofs allow them to travel over frost and snow and hair on their bodies to withstand wind and cold. It is part of their nature to eat grass, drink water, and run through the countryside. Human beings came along and altered this. They trimmed the horses’ mane, shoed their hoofs, and placed yokes around their necks. Under such externally imposed patterns, horses are restricted to a narrow path and cannot thrive. These human actions disrupt the natural order of things. Thus, Chuang-tzu encouraged his students not to seek to be useful, lest they become unknowingly enchained while losing touch with their spontaneous inner nature. Uselessness has its use. Set yourself free, Chuang-tzu advised.

RETURN TO THE PRIMITIVE

Let all of earth’s creatures, including people, live in accordance with their nature, and everyone will prosper. All are part of the Tao, expressing Tao by their own individual way of living. Chuang-tzu believed that each person has his or her own gifts and individual talents to express. When people follow their path, nature shows them the Way. They cannot fail. As problems arise, solutions emerge. Return to your origins in the primitive for wisdom. Problems are only apparent, arising from mistaking relative existence for absolute Tao.

In a famous story recounted by Chuang-tzu, Prince Yuan of Sung was seeking a painter. He asked all applicants to come to the palace at a certain time of day. All arrived, neat and punctual, at the appointed time except for one man, who wandered in dressed casually, quite late. The palace guards turned the strange, uncouth artist away, and he returned to his lodgings. The prince, however, became curious and wanted to see what the man could do. He sent some messengers to the artist’s room. When they arrived and asked to see the artist, he removed all his clothes and squatted down in a corner of the room. The messengers returned to the prince and described the strange behavior. “Bring him to me!” the prince said. “He is a true painter.” This partakes of the essence of Taoist art: naked, primitive, spontaneous, without concern for decoration through outer appearance or garments. Through art, the artist expresses his individual chi, the inner life force.

How, then, do we learn to follow our own true nature? Chuang-tzu’s answer is reminiscent of Buddhism in that the best technique to find Tao is through meditation, through learning to be empty of thoughts and desires. But Taoism interprets this a little differently from Buddhism: Practice self-forgetfulness. By self-abandonment to the realm of the unknown, the inner pattern will emerge. By acting spontaneously in synchrony with inner patterns, correct conduct is found. Then you can live unhindered by anything external. Return to the source of your life, the foundation in the wordless, unfathomable, unknowable Tao, and you will discover your true nature.

THE IMPORTANCE OF DREAMS

Chuang-tzu stretches the limits of “unknowing” to question our very certainty about consciousness. How do we know if we are truly awake? Chuang-tzu dreamt he was a butterfly, fluttering about happily in nature. He knew only that world of experience. The dream seemed real. When he awoke, he remembered his dream and knew he was Chuang-tzu. Then he wondered was he Chuang-tzu awake, remembering his dream of being a butterfly, or was he actually only a butterfly, asleep, dreaming he was a man, awake? Are we asleep or awake?

For Chuang-tzu, the unconscious dream state could not be distinguished from the waking, conscious state of mind. Tao can be found anywhere, at any time. But perhaps through dreams we are less impeded by conscious limits. These ideas were developed by Lieh-tzu (see Chapter 4) and can be put to use to help foster self-discovery (see Chapter 17).

FINAL YEARS

When Chuang-tzu was old and knew he was soon going to die, his disciples offered to give him a large, impressive funeral to show their great respect and love for him. Chuang-tzu protested and said, “I shall have heaven and earth for my coffin, the sun and moon for my two round symbols of jade, and the stars and constellations as my jewels. Isn’t that more than anyone could possibly want?”

The disciples responded, “But we are afraid that the crows will eat you, Master.”

Chuang-tzu smiled at them benevolently and said, “Above, the crows will eat me. Below, the moles and ants will eat me. To give to these and take from those would only show your one-sidedness. All are equal under the Tao.” These were the last words of Chuang-tzu, a man who wholeheartedly devoted his entire life to the Taoist Way.