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(TEACHERS) say that (the word) sásana, command, (is applicable only to) royal writs (sásana).

Writs are of great importance to kings inasmuch as treaties and ultimate leading to war depend upon writs.

Hence one who is possessed of ministerial qualifications, acquainted with all kinds of customs, smart in composition, good in legible writing, and sharp in reading shall be appointed as a writer (lékhaka).

Such a writer, having attentively listened to the king's order and having well thought out the matter under consideration, shall reduce the order to writing.

As to a writ addressed to a lord (ísvara), it shall contain a polite mention of his country, his possessions, his family and his name, and as to that addressed to a common man (anisvara), it shall make a polite mention of his country and name.

Having paid sufficient attention to the caste, family, social rank, age, learning (sruta), occupation, property, character (síla), blood-relationship (yaunánubandha) of the addressee, as well as to the place and time (of writing), the writer shall form a writ befitting the position of the person addressed.

Arrangement of subject-matter (arthakrama), relevancy (sambandha), completeness, sweetness, dignity, and lucidity are the necessary qualities of a writ.

The act of mentioning facts in the order of their importance is arrangement.

When subsequent facts are not contradictory to facts just or previously mentioned, and so on till the completion of the letter, it is termed relevancy.

Avoidance of redundancy or deficiency in words or letters; impressive description of subject matter by citing reasons, examples, and illustrations; and the use of appropriate and suitably strong words (asrántapada) is completeness.

The description in exquisite style of a good purport with a pleasing effect is sweetness.

The use of words other than colloquial (agrámya) is dignity.

The use of well-known words is lucidity.

The alphabetical letters beginning with Akára are sixty-three.

The combination of letters is a word (pada). The word is of four kinds—nouns, verbs, prefixes of verbs, and particles (nipáta).

A noun is that which signifies an essence (satva).

A verb is that which has no definite gender and signifies an action.

'Pra' and other words are the prefixes of verbs.

'Cha' and other indeclinable words are particles.

A group of words conveying a complete sense is a sentence (vákya).

Combination of words (varga) consisting of not more than three words and not less than one word shall be so formed as to harmonise with the meaning of immediately following words.

The word, ‘iti,’ is used to indicate the completion of a writ; and also to indicate an oral message as in the phrase ‘váchikamasyeti,’ an oral message along with this (writ).

Calumniation (nindá), commendation, inquiry, narration request, refusal, censure, prohibition, command, conciliation, promise of help, threat, and persuasion are the thirteen purposes for which writs are issued.

Calumniation (nindá) consists in speaking ill of one's family, body and acts.

Commendation (prasamsá) consists in praising one's family, person, and acts.

To inquire 'how is this?' is inquiry.

To point out the way as 'thus,' is narration (ákhyána).

To entreat as 'give,' is request.

To say that 'I do not give,' is refusal.

To say that 'it is not worthy of thee,' is censure (upálambhah).

To say as 'do not do so,' is prohibition (pratishedha).

To say that 'this should be done,' is command (chódaná).

To say 'what I am, thou art that; whichever article is mine is thine also, is conciliation (sántvam).

To hold out help in trouble is promise of help (abhyavapattih).

Pointing out the evil consequences that may occur in future is threat (abhibartsanam).

Persuasion is of three kinds: that made for the purpose of money, that made in case of one's failure to fulfill a promise, and that made on occasion of any trouble.

Also writs of information, of command, and of gift; likewise writs of remission, of licence, of guidance, of reply, and of general proclamation are other varieties.

Thus says (the messenger); so says (the king); if there is any truth in this (statement of the messenger), then the thing (agreed to) should at once be surrendered; (the messenger) has informed the king of all the deeds of the enemy. (Parakára);—this is the writ of information which is held to be of various forms.

Wherever and especially regarding Government servants the king's order either for punishment or for rewards is issued, it is called writ of command (ájnálékha).

Where the bestowal of honour for deserving merit is contemplated either as help to alleviate affliction (ádhi) or as gift (paridána), there are issued writs of gift (upagrahalekha).

Whatever favour (anugraha) to special castes, cities, villages, or countries of various description is announced in obedience to the king's order, it is called writ of remission (pariháralékha) by those who know it.

Likewise licence or permission (nisrishti) shall be enjoined either in word or deed; accordingly it is styled verbal order or writ of licence.

Various kinds of providential visitations or well ascertained evils of human make are believed to be the cause for issuing writs of guidance (pravrittilékha) to attempt remedies against them.

When having read a letter and discussed as to the form of reply thereto, a reply in accordance with the king's order is made, it is called a writ of reply (pratilékha).

When the king directs his viceroys (isvara) and other officers to protect and give material help to travellers either on roads or in the interior of the country, it is termed writ of general proclamation (sarvatraga lekha)

Negotiation, bribery, causing dissension, and open attack are forms of stratagem (upáya).

Negotiation is of five kinds:—

Praising the qualities (of an enemy), narrating the mutual relationship, pointing out mutual benefit, showing vast future prospects, and identity of interests.

When the family, person, occupation, conduct, learning, properties, etc. (of an enemy) are commended with due attention to their worth, it is termed praising the qualities (gunasankírthana).

When the fact of having agnates, blood-relations, teachers (maukha), priestly hierarchy (srauva), family, and friends in common is pointed out, it is known as narration of mutual relationship (sambandhópakhyána).

When both parties, the party of a king and that of his enemy are shown to be helpful to each other, it is known as pointing out mutual benefit (parasparópakárasamdarsanam).

Inducement such as 'this being done thus, such result will accrue to both of us,' is showing vast future prospects (Ayátipradarsanam).

To say 'what I am, that thou art; thou mayest utilize in thy works whatever is mine,' is identity of interests (átmópanidhánam).

Offering money is bribery (upapradána).

Causing fears and suspicion as well as threatening is known as sowing dissension.

Killing, harassing, and plundering is attack (danda).

Clumsiness, contradiction, repetition, bad grammar, and misarrangement are the faults of a writ.

Black and ugly leaf, (kálapatrakamacháru) and uneven and uncoloured (virága) writing cause clumsiness (akánti).

Subsequent portion disagreeing with previous portion of a letter, causes contradiction (vyágháta).

Stating for a second time what has already been said above is repetition.

Wrong use of words in gender, number, time and case is bad grammar (apasabda).

Division of paragraphs (varga) in unsuitable places, omission of necessary division of paragraphs, and violation of any other necessary qualities of a writ constitute misarrangement (samplava).

Having followed all sciences and having fully observed forms of writing in vogue, these rules of writing royal writs have been laid down by Kautilya in the interest of kings.

[Thus ends Chapter X, "The Procedure of Forming Royal Writs," in Book II, "The Duties of Government Superintendents," of the Arthasástra of Kautilva. End of thirty-first chapter from the beginning.]