Читать книгу Islamic Monuments in Cairo - Caroline Williams - Страница 9
ОглавлениеArchitectural and Ornamental Summary
Most of the monuments described here are religious, such as mosques and complexes; a few are secular: city walls, inns, and houses. At first glance, the religious structures may seem to offer a certain sameness, but they do have distinct styles, and while the decoration may seem repetitive, it also has discrete meanings. The following may make both the religious and the secular buildings and their decorations more understandable.
The Mosque. The only absolute requirement for a mosque in Islam is that it set off or demarcate a space in which people may gather to say prayers while facing in the direction of Mecca. The first mosque was the courtyard of the Prophet’s house in Medina, which had no architectural refinements except a shaded area at one end. The first mosques built by the Arabs as their empire expanded were equally simple. From these beginnings developed the congregational, or Friday, mosque, whose essential features remain today more or less what they were almost 1,400 years ago—a large courtyard surrounded by arcaded porches, with more aisles or arcades on the side facing Mecca, or qibla side, than on the other sides. This is the so-called Arab plan (see figure 4). Traditionally, women tended to pray at home or at saints’ shrines. As a result of the current Islamic revival separate spaces for women are being provided in all mosques.
Initially, the congregational mosque was the administrative and social as well as the religious center of the town, and it needed to be large enough to accommodate all the Muslim troops and subjects for the Friday sermon delivered by the local governor. The first congregational mosque in Egypt was that of ‘Amr at al-Fustat, followed successively by those of Ibn Tulun, al-Azhar, and Baybars I—reflecting the northward shift of successive urban administrative centers under different rulers. The principal congregational mosques in use today, other than al-Azhar, are Sayyidna al-Husayn (opposite al-Azhar) and Sayyida Zaynab, both normally closed to non-Muslims.
Initially, there was only one congregational mosque in an Islamic city. As populations increased and as cities grew, however, smaller neighborhood mosques were established. Many of these follow the general plan of a courtyard surrounded by arcades, but others are simply rooms with a niche at one end marking the direction of Mecca. Some are very elaborate and some have special functions, such as the ‘Umar Makram Mosque just off Tahrir Square, which is the preferred site for the funerary receptions of state officials. As part of the Government’s restoration program new carpeting featuring a design of individual niches covers the original flooring. Another recent feature is the chairs in the prayer area that accommodate old or disabled worshipers.
The Madrasa. This is a school for law and theology where students were trained for scholarly or administrative functions. The madrasa was introduced to Egypt by Salah al-Din as part of his effort to combat and suppress Fatimid Shiism. Two special types developed in Cairo. The first is the cruciform madrasa, the outstanding example being that of Sultan Hasan. Its basic form, in which four great vaulted halls, or iwans, face each other across a central court, originated in Iran. There the iwans were connected by an open, double-storied arcade of rooms and cells. In Cairo, however, the dormitories and rooms were hidden in the angles between the vaults, behind a courtyard facade. These madrasa buildings tend to rise vertically in a number of stories, as opposed to the flat parade-ground effect of the congregational mosque that provided space for a multitude on the same level. In the Mamluk period, builders attached subsidiary units such as tomb–chambers and sabil–kuttabs to convert simple forms into large funerary complexes (figure 4).
The second type of madrasa, the qa‘a form, appeared at the end of the Mamluk period, as a result of both the increasing complexity of the structure and the fact that less urban land was available on which to build. The basic cruciform madrasa plan was modified by shrinking the east and west iwans to vestigial proportions, and reducing and covering the central courtyard with a wooden roof with a central cupola. This gave the madrasa unit a rectangular core, about which were fitted the additional elements of the complex. This formula resulted in some of the most charming buildings in Cairo, with the mausoleum complex of Qaytbay being perhaps the best example.
The Khanqah. This monastic residence for esoteric orders of Muslim mystics is another type of monument whose plan consists of a central court with surrounding lateral rooms. The earliest that survives is the Khanqah of Sultan Baybars II.
The Tomb or Mausoleum. In Arabic this is called a qubba (dome) or turba (tomb); usually it is a domed chamber containing one or more tombs, either freestanding or as part of a larger complex.
The Khan or Wikala. An inn for traveling merchants built around a courtyard, with stables and warehouses at ground level and living accommodations above. A well-restored example, the Wikala of al-Ghuri, is just down the street from al-Azhar.
The House. Cairene domestic architecture prior to the nineteenth century had considerable style and charm. Its controlling requirements were privacy, security, coolness, and a minimum of exterior ostentation. Recent restorations have added to the extant numbers, and also brought to light their attractive decorations. The best known are the Gayer-Anderson Museum, the Bayt al-Sihaymi, the newly restored cluster in the back of al-Azhar Mosque, and the Manzil of Shaykh Sadat.
The Sabil-Kuttab. In addition to those incorporated into Mamluk complexes, there are a number of freestanding examples throughout the city. Sabil-kuttabs are two-story buildings with a public water dispensary below and a Qur’anic school for boys above. Enormous underground cisterns stored and provided the water. They were a favorite charitable endowment of the Turkish period and some are still in use as schools, but the fountains have been supplanted by the municipal water system. The sabil–kuttabs are all in various stages of decay and the modernizers are stealthily sacrificing them to the bulldozer. At the end of the eighteenth century there were 308 water dispensaries; today there are 90. Many of those that remain have much charm and beauty, such as those of ‘Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda.
Fortifications and Aqueducts. These include the walls and gates of the Fatimid city, the finest pre-Crusader fortifications surviving in the Middle East; the Citadel, the nerve center of Cairo from the late twelfth to the late nineteenth century; and the aqueduct that runs from the Nile to the Citadel.
Figure 5: Types of minarets and external dome supports
Figure 6: Types of arches and windows
Styles and Periods
The following assembles in convenient if simplified form an overview of architectural periods. More detailed information appears in descriptions of individual monuments.
Early Islamic (750–969). There is no uniform style to this period, whose outstanding monument is the Mosque of Ibn Tulun. Its inspiration came from Samarra, near Baghdad, the ninth-century capital of the Abbasids. It has brickwork piers, pointed arches, and a magnificent coating of carved stucco ornamentation. The brick piers were imitated in the Fatimid Mosque of al-Hakim, and the pointed arch and carved stucco later became important features of Cairo architecture.
Fatimid-Ayyubid (969–1250). The first mosques of this period, al-Azhar and al-Hakim, were influenced by prototypes in Tunisia. The Mosque of al-Aqmar, however, modified by urban conditions in al-Qahira, offers a new plan and a new decorative scheme on its façade. The Fatimids continued the use of stucco, but preferred the keel arch, which they supported with Greco-Roman columns taken from older buildings and held together with iron rings and wooden tie beams. They also used the keel arch as a frame for wall panels and windows, and filled the panels with stylized vegetal ornamentation, an embellishment still in use. An S-curve frame appeared in windows and later was incorporated into decorative niches on most minarets. A number of Fatimid tombs, such as that of Sayyida Ruqayya, have ribbed domes of North African inspiration.
The most important innovation of the Fatimid period was the introduction of stone masonry, starting with the stone walls and gates put up by the Armenian wazir Badr al-Gamali. The Fatimids are also credited with the earliest examples of domes now found in Cairo. They rested them on squinches, which developed into the elaborate stalactites that are a feature of Islamic buildings everywhere. Some of these are illustrated in figure 7.
As builders, the Ayyubids were a transitional dynasty. While they continued Fatimid styles (the use of stucco, keel arches, stalactites), they also brought in new influences from Syria: marble for decoration; the madrasa, or theological college; and the khanqah, or Sufi hostel. The Ayyubids introduced a more flowing script, the Naskhi style, which partially replaced the angular Kufic script in calligraphic ornamentation. They also used the keel arch with ribbing on the tops of minarets, which gave them an outline like an incense pot, hence the name mabkhara.
Early Mamluk (1250–1350). This was an era of experimentation, with many innovations. It was during this period that the cruciform madrasa was developed. The domes, in brick and plaster, were usually ribbed and followed a pointed arch curve as opposed to the keel arch curve of the Fatimids. The result resembles a jelly mold.
Other innovations were the monumental doorway with stalactite decorations, which became a characteristic feature of Mamluk architecture; the development of the minaret from a square, rather squat structure to a more slender shape with octagonal and round stories, approaching what has become the typical Cairo minaret (see figure 5); the gradual replacement of carved stucco with colored marble and mosaics; veneer joggling, the decoration of arches and entranceways with thin panels of marble, cut in jigsaw shapes and set into the stone; and, finally, the common use of ablaq masonry, alternating courses of colored stone, often red and white.
This period included the reign of Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad (1310–41). He and his officers were enthusiastic architectural patrons. Sharia Saliba, commencing near the Maydan Sayyida Zaynab, as well as the long street called Darb al-Ahmar, were initiated and developed, and these new routes brought forth new urban considerations. Buildings were planned with vistas in mind, such as how the exterior would be best viewed. Cardinal orientation, the site on the street, and the arrangement of its components also became important. For example, could the mausoleum have both a visible placement and be on the qibla side of the building?
Middle Mamluk (1350–1430). During this period, which spans the end of the Bahri and the beginning of the Burgi Mamluk periods, the Burgi style continued Bahri precedents. The use of stone for the domes of major structures became widespread. The stone dome began to receive its first somewhat tentative decoration, as in the zigzag lines on the domes of Barquq’s desert mausoleum. The sabil–kuttab became part of the larger mosque complex. This period produced a masterpiece of Mamluk art, the Madrasa of Sultan Hasan.
Late Mamluk (1430–1517). Urban and architectural mutualism continued. When city builders such as ‘Amr, Ibn Tulun, and the Fatimids built mosques, they had ample land at their disposal. By the time the Mamluks came to power, however, the city of Cairo was built up, and new buildings often had to be squeezed into irregular spaces between existing structures and streets. Fatimid mosques are almost uniformly rectangular, but later, Burgi Mamluk buildings within the town are almost as uniformly irregular in ground plan, although considerable thought and effort was often given to making the building look regular in shape. The search for rectangularity, even on irregular lots, became something of an obsession. The result was a number of jewel-like pieces, such as the beautiful Mosque of Qijmas al-Ishaqi near Bab Zuwayla, which is built on an irregular wedge of ground but still appears rectangular to the casual observer on the outside.
Figure 7: Types of internal dome supports
Figure 8: Types of crenellations
The reign of Sultan Gaqmaq (1438–53) initiated a change of style. The economic instability of the period and Gaqmaq’s own personal piety led to a diminution of the monument’s size, as well as of its decorative richness. Marble panels gave way to stone carving in high and low relief. This is especially noticeable in mihrabs. The period, however, ends with a flourish in the constructions of Sultans Qaytbay and al-Ghuri. The crafts of decoration in marble and stone reached their peak. The delicate arabesques on the dome of Qaytbay’s mausoleum are the finest example of this art. Other crafts, such as wood inlay and joining and metal sheathing, are also noteworthy. The end of this period saw a transition to Turkish styles, notably in the shapes of domes, which became flatter. There was a switch to less-contrasting stone for ablaq masonry: a combination of white and soft yellow replaced the earlier red and white. There was also some experimenting with minarets, returning to the early Mamluk square style, with two or more finials on top, as seen in the minarets of the Mosque of Sultan al-Ghuri.
Ottoman (1517-nineteenth century). The late Turkish mosque is a variation on the congregational mosque plan. Two types predominate: the metropolitan Turkish, in which the sanctuary arcade is enclosed and covered by a large dome while the lateral arcades around the courtyard are reduced to a simple portico (e.g., Malika Safiya), and the indigenous (e.g., Mahmud Pasha) square or rectangular in shape, with four central pillars suggesting a courtyard covered by a roof (figure 4). Many mosques also show creative combinations of both Ottoman and Mamluk features. They also tend to be modest in size and decoration since the revenue from Egypt was sent to Istanbul and Ottoman patrons did not have the wealth of earlier Mamluk patrons. The Turkish minaret is pencil-shaped, thin and tapered at the top. In this period, secular monuments such as wikalas, houses, and sabil–kuttabs predominate. The recent cleaning of many buildings has unveiled a veritable garden of painted flowers decorating ceiling beams and closet panels. Another by-product of the recent restorations is the discovery of underground cisterns that supplied the sabils with their water.
Decoration
There are three basic themes in Islamic ornament, and they are used both in religious and in secular decoration because in Islam there is no separation of state from religion.
Calligraphy. For the Muslim the Qur’an is the direct word of God. His word becomes thus the main religious icon of Islam. Qur’anic verses remind man of his duties and relationship to God, and verses from the Qur’an, in beautiful and varied scripts, are the main embellishment of religious buildings (see figure 9). For example, a verse often used in mosques is Sura 9, verse 18: “Only one shall frequent God’s places of worship who believes in God and the Last Day, and performs the prayer, and pays the alms, and fears none but God; these may be of the guided.” The Throne Verse (2:255) is often placed around the base of a dome so that its vivid description of God’s majesty can radiate down upon the prayer space or upon the worshipers: “His throne comprises the heavens and the earth; the preservation of them wearies Him not; He is the Sublime, the Almighty . . . .” A verse that appears only on mihrabs is 2:144: “turn now your face in the direction of the holy mosque [Mecca]. . . .’’Verses used in religious buildings, such as 2:255, 3:190, and 48:1–5, are also placed in houses.
Verses from the Qur’an are supported by two other forms of ornament, both of which were adapted from pre-Islamic motifs and designs.
Arabic Inscriptions
Kufic: This script, preeminent from the 7th to the 13th centuries, has simple angular shapes, a low vertical profile, and an extended horizontal form. Over time the letters evolved into elaborate foliate endings or were placed on rich arabesque backgrounds.
Cursive scripts: Originally developed for chancery and manuscript purposes, these scripts were adapted for inscriptions in the 12th century. Naskhi tended to have letters with curves deep and full that fall below the medial line. Thuluth means ‘a third’ and indicates the proportion of the horizontal letters to the vertical ones. When used on monuments this script has a ‘stacked’ appearance, since horizontal letters or short words are placed in the open areas framed by the verticals.
Nastaliq: This script originating in 15th-century Persia combines a fluency of flow with an extreme simplification of letters. In Cairo it was popular in Ottoman times. The inscriptions were usually written within calligraphic panels, not as continous bands as in Mamluk usage.
Tughra: A distinctive calligraphic emblem containing the name of the Ottoman sultan. In Cairo, this emblem is found on buildings erected in the name of the sultan, and often on those founded in the early 19th century by Muhammad ‘Ali, nominally a subject of the sultan.
Arabesque is based on plant forms, such as grapevines, acanthus, and split palmettes. Leaves and stems form a continuous, undulating, interlacing pattern. This energy and beauty, force and rhythm evoke the power of God as it is expressed in nature, and allude to such verses as “by rain He brings forth for you crops, olives, palms, vines, and all manner of fruit. Surely in that is a sign for people who reflect” (16:11); and “No want of proportion will you see in the creation of the All-Merciful. Return your gaze: do you see any rift? Then turn your gaze again, and it will come back to you dazzled, aweary” (67:3–4).
Geometric ornament also embodies the principles of repetition, symmetry, and continuous generation of pattern. These designs are based on order, mathematics, and rational expression. Many include stars, which also contain visual links with Qur’anic verses: “He it is Who appointed for you the stars, that you might be guided by them in darkness on land and sea” (6:97); “And the stars are in subjection by His command: verily in this are signs for those who are wise” (16:12). Stars are thus a metaphor for God: “God is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The likeness of His light is a niche wherein is a lamp: the lamp is a glass: the glass as it were a shining star” (24:35).
Arabesque and geometric patterns appear together because they are complimentary aspects of God’s creative powers, and in union with calligraphic renderings of verses of the Qur’an suggest the existence of an omnipresent, omnipotent God who cannot be seen but whose order and power undergirds the universe. These three basic forms of ornament embellish not only religious structures but also objects for secular use.
Color is another important element that gives Islamic decoration a spiritual dimension. Different colors add complexity, visibility, and contrast to patterns. Color is also suggestive. Blue is the color of heaven, of water, of good fortune. Green is the color of vegetation and growth, and is associated with the Prophet and his family. The Qur’an relates: “In the mountains are tracts white and red, of colors various, and pitchy black” (35:27). These are the very colors of the marble panels used to decorate the qibla wall.
Secular objects have an additional dimension that does not appear in religious buildings and objects. These are human representations. These images derive from the pre-Islamic imagery of the Byzantine (Egypt and Syria) and Sassanian (Iraq and Iran) lands that the Arab armies conquered, and whose artisans they used initially. This ‘kingly’ iconography shows the ruler hunting, feasting, drinking, watching dancing girls. There are many examples of this appropriation by the Arabs on ceramics, metalwork, and textiles in the various collections of Islamic artifacts.
