Читать книгу The Naval War of 1812 - Cecil Louis Troughton Smith - Страница 3

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IT might be expected that a belligerent’s war aims should bear some relationship to the grievances or ambitions that led to the war. It might even be expected that the belligerent’s war plans should bear some relationship to his war aims. Yet history has shown that these relationships are frequently of the slightest; Clausewitz’ dictum that war is the continuation of policy by other means is modified by Seekt’s logical addendum that the coming of war marks the breakdown of policy. Moreover, as a war progresses, the original issues tend to become obscured and the war plans more complicated—as needs hardly be pointed out to a generation that has seen American soldiers fighting Italians in Africa in a conflict that originated in a boundary dispute between Germany and Poland. Nor need it be stressed that there are frequently profound differences between the real and the ostensible causes of a war, and wide divergences between the real and the ostensible war aims. And, with war contemplated or entered upon, the military ideas of the politicians may differ radically from those of the soldiers and sailors (in the same way as the political ideas of the soldiers and sailors may differ radically from those of the politicians), so that plans and execution may be tortuous or ineffectual or apparently motiveless.

Mr Madison’s message to Congress of June 1, 1812, which resulted in a declaration of war on June 18, stated the grievances of the United States. The first was the practice of impressment by British ships-of-war of seamen from American ships. If the men pressed were British subjects, Mr Madison, without admitting the legality of such action, had been willing to discuss ‘arrangements’ which would render it unnecessary. Regarding the impressment of American citizens—and Mr Madison affirmed that thousands had been impressed—Mr Madison admitted no possibility of compromise whatever.

The next grievance was the habit of British ships violating the sovereignty of American territorial waters, and Mr Madison alluded, but not in specific terms, to such incidents as the engagements between the Chesapeake and the Leopard, and between the President and the Little Belt.

In the sixth paragraph Mr Madison brought up the subject of ‘pretended blockades’, ‘mock blockades’, with particular allusion to the inadequate notice given before such blockades were enforced.

Next came the question of the Orders-in-Council and their sweeping regulation of all trade with the continent of Europe. Here the matter of pretended blockades was not discussed in such detail; the grievance here was that the British Government was trying to force trade into particular channels, and was adopting a policy which, under pretence of the necessities of war, favoured British trade and handicapped that of America.

At this point Mr Madison reviewed the negotiations which had taken place up to that date. The actual wording of his message here deserves close study; and close study is further necessary because of the rambling nature of the argument. It reflects all the difficulties under which the two governments had laboured; many of them had been greatly increased as a result of blunders in the technique of international negotiation. There had been misunderstandings; some agents had exceeded their powers and others had been indiscreet, and in each case the mutual irritation had been heightened unnecessarily; the irritation is plain in every word.

It was, of course, impossible to discuss the negotiations with England without discussing those with France. Here it was plain that Mr Madison had been fooled by Bonaparte, that for a time at least the downright lies which Bonaparte had told had been accepted as truths, and the shifts and subterfuges to which Bonaparte had resorted had been accepted as straightforward dealings. Yet it is possible to read into the style and manner of the message a certain uneasiness. Without avowing it to himself Mr Madison had by now formed a vague, a very vague, suspicion that Bonaparte had been lying, and by that means Bonaparte had manœuvred the British and American Governments into their present attitude of hostility. There was almost a hint of regret in Mr Madison’s admission that at one point war with France had been as likely a possibility as war with England.

But now the die was cast. In making his recommendations to the Legislature Mr Madison put his trust in the enlightened and patriotic councils of the nation, and the United States, with naval and military forces as inconsiderable on paper as those of Portugal or Sicily, entered into war with the nation which had for years defied the whole world in arms. And the avowed purpose of the war was to put an end to interference with American trade and shipping; the slogan ‘Free Trade and Sailors’ Rights’ was coined to fit it. It remained to be seen how the United States Government proposed to bring it about.

At the time when the final fatal interchange of notes was taking place between England and America, Bonaparte was notoriously massing his troops for an attack upon Russia. He had defeated Russia before; he had defeated every great Continental power. Since his seizure of power he had engaged in six great campaigns—Marengo, Austerlitz, Jena, Friedland, Spain, and Wagram—and had emerged personally victorious from every one. From the Balkans to the Arctic and the Atlantic, save for Russia, all Europe acknowledged his suzerainty with the apparently minute exceptions of Sicily and Sardinia, Sweden and Portugal, and a small area in Spain—and even in Spain the close of 1811 witnessed the fall of Valencia, almost the last Spanish city that could defy him, and the surrender of almost the last army that Spain could put in the field. With the approaching conquest of Russia, Bonaparte’s power would be seemingly unchallengeable, and England would be forced into recognition of the fact, and would swallow the unpalatable pills presented to her.

The last time England had faced a united Europe and a hostile America she had given way, had suffered enormous affronts to her pride, and had signed, in 1783, the peace which freed America and limited her own power. It would seem—judging by recent events—that the lesson had been badly learned and a second lesson was necessary, and Mr Madison was in no way averse from administering it. After the Peace of Paris it was plain that never again could the King of England hope to exert so much influence on the Government of his country—tyranny had been put within bounds; and freedom had been enormously extended by the establishment of an independent America. A new peace would clear up much that had regrettably been left unfinished when the old one was signed. The Government of England would be further liberalized. The question of the arbitrary use of sea power would be definitely settled. Canada would be admitted to the benefits of a republican form of government, certainly looking to Washington for guidance and possibly owing Washington actual and grateful allegiance. And Europe, under the benevolent supervision of Bonaparte, would enjoy the belated fruits of the European Revolution which had been fertilized by the American Revolution.

Clausewitz at this moment was fighting in the Russian ranks against the French, and Mr Madison was not fated to live long enough to be able to read what Clausewitz had to say about war, nor what his disciples made of his teachings. A total victory of the kind that Clausewitz envisaged was not a wild dream at a time when England was at war with France. It was a possibility. The total overthrow of one side or the other had become a more and more likely result of the conflict ever since the rupture of the Peace of Amiens, although no demand for unconditional surrender was made until after the return from Elba. It is doubtful if the American Government ever realized this; in the correspondence both of Jefferson and of Madison the possibility of the invasion of England and her ‘moderate republicanization’ is contemplated with equanimity. Prejudiced against the Tory Government then in power, and prejudiced in favour of the French Government with its talk of liberty and equality, the United States Government did not realize that England with all her faults was fighting for the liberty of the world against a tyranny as crushing and as treacherous as any that had appeared in history. There could be no such thing as a moderate defeat of England when two opposing ideologies were locked in combat, but Madison believed there could be. He was never disillusioned, luckily for the world. He might have lived to see, if England had been defeated, tyranny not only extended throughout the British Isles and Europe but reaching out across the Atlantic, a lord of the world in Paris eyeing jealously the existence of free speech in Washington, the Louisiana Purchase repudiated, and a satellite Spain raising difficulties in Florida in consequence. The Napoleonic policy of force and fraud would have found plenty of objectives in the United States, and it is hardly likely that a victorious French Empire would have paid any more attention to an American request for free trade and sailors’ rights than England had done.

Yet for good or for ill, America was at war, and the question had to be decided as to how the objectives of the war should be attained. Presumably, if faced by imminent total overthrow, England would hasten to make peace on any terms with her less malignant enemy; but action had to be taken in case that overthrow were to be long deferred or to prove impossible of attainment. Then America must make such a nuisance of herself that her demands would be listened to; and to ensure the granting of those demands it would be well if she were to acquire something to bargain with in addition to the mere offer to cease hostilities. The results of the embargo proved that simple economic pressure was not sufficient—at least when exerted only to the limited extent that the Federal Government could force its citizens to apply it. Obviously the next step to take was to attack British commerce, and some months before the declaration of war Congress had reached a decision which settled, for the duration of the war, the principal means by which British commerce was to be attacked. A congressional committee had reported wistfully that a small fleet of twelve ships-of-the-line and twenty frigates would suffice to keep the British Navy at a respectful distance from the American coasts (and such a force would most likely have been strong enough for that purpose); but the committee had realized that there was no chance of Congress voting for such a force and had limited its recommendations to the frigates alone; and the House of Representatives had voted down the recommendation. It had voted down the proposal to establish a dockyard. All it would agree to was a minute provision for the purchase of timber. If war was to come—and war was by then a decided possibility—it would have to be fought at sea by private enterprise backed only by the tiny naval force at present in existence.

Nevertheless, this same Congress, at the same moment, had displayed some insight into the corresponding problem. Privateering, in its opinion, would provide the ‘nuisance force’. To establish the United States in a bargaining position it was proposed to rely upon the Army, which was to conquer Canada, and with that objective in view a huge increase in the Army was voted. A present establishment of ten thousand was to be increased to thirty-five thousand; fifty thousand volunteers were to be enlisted at the same time. Such a force could hardly cost less than seventeen million dollars a year (the vote for the purchase of timber barely exceeded half a million dollars) and moreover, as the regular army was far below establishment, the proposed increase of about fourteen to one meant that the force raised could not attain efficiency without months of preparation and further months of training. Little thought was given to the question of how this force was to be recruited, housed, equipped, or trained. And no thought was given to the manner in which it was to be employed, for no steps were taken or contemplated for attaining the necessary naval superiority on Lakes Ontario and Erie. Canada was to be conquered (by ‘mere marching’, Jefferson suggested) apparently by the wishing for it, for five months after the vote to increase the Army the Secretary of War blithely reported the number of regular troops as less than seven thousand. Yet, whatever the means available, and however nebulous the actual plans, it was already obvious that the war objectives would be best attained by an attack on British commerce and by the occupation of Canada.

On the British side the confusion was not quite as universal, and it was more evident in policy than in execution, as might be expected after the British experience of almost twenty years of warfare. Seeing that England had allowed war to come it might be thought that her war objectives were maintenance of the present state of affairs, but the conclusion is not quite sound. In the first place, after years of argument with the Administrations of Jefferson and Madison, the British Government had come to believe that America would not fight in any circumstances, a belief which accounted largely for the aura of unreality which surrounded most of the British proposals. The Government did not, or could not, believe that America would fight; and equally important was the fact that most of those people who would have to do the fighting did not care if she did.

The recklessness and high-handedness of British naval officers had an effect as inevitable upon their Government as the timidity of their Government in judging their behaviour had upon them. Captains of British ships-of-war, very much left to their own initiative while communications remained slow, were eternally plagued by the twin problems of manning their ships and dealing with desertion. A captain whose professional career, whose actual life, depended on the safety of his ship, which in turn depended on acquiring the services of another twenty topmen, was not going to give too much attention to the niceties of international law when he saw a chance of acquiring those twenty topmen. And his breach of international law brought only faint protests from Washington, not strong enough to call down any rebuke upon him from his professional superiors; the vicious circle was established readily enough, especially as the practice of impressment from neutrals, from ships of Bremen or Hamburg—states too feeble to be worth consideration—was of long standing.

There was an ever keener edge to the British captains’ feelings when it came to recovering deserters. It was not a matter of regaining the deserters’ services; as they were mostly hanged, or flogged into idiocy, the deserters were not going to be of further service in any case. But a successful desertion—still more a successful mass desertion—shook the whole structure of discipline in a ship every man of whose crew (as far as years and years of experience seemed to prove) was doomed to live on in hardship and peril until his broken body was cast into a watery grave. The recovery of one deserter, and his spectacular hanging or flogging round the fleet, made a deep impression upon, and was likely to eliminate dangerous thoughts from, the minds of the thousands of seamen who witnessed it. So hungrily was this possibility regarded by admirals commanding squadrons, and captains commanding ships, manned by men at least half of whom would desert if they saw a chance of doing so, that they would go to any lengths short of professional ruin to bring it about. Their professional superiors were in complete sympathy with them, having faced the same problems, and could not fail to influence the Cabinet in their favour; and the Cabinet, convinced by long experience that no outrage would elicit a declaration of war, took no decided steps to check outrages. The Cabinet was responsible to a country which was fighting for life against a powerful and unscrupulous tyrant. The only sure protection against that tyrant was the Royal Navy, and the Cabinet must needs have hesitated before interfering with practices in that Navy which high professional opinion deemed essential to its existence.

The Navy—and the Nation too—were, however, reckless as well as desperate. They had won victories over every major naval power in the world. France and Spain and the Netherlands had all suffered repeated defeats at their hands. Nearly every victory had been won against serious numerical odds. Under the protection of the Navy, British merchant shipping and British troop transports sailed with practical impunity in every quarter of the globe despite the hostility of all Europe. To men in this mood, to men without imagination, there was nothing deterrent about the prospect of a small addition to the numbers of their enemies. Denmark had possessed at least five times the naval force, at least ten times the military force, of the United States, and she had been twice struck down, and was now reduced to nearly complete impotence, able to offer only the most trivial annoyance to the merchant fleets of England sailing up the Sound almost within cannon-shot of her shores. What was there to fear from America?

The merchant fleets of the rest of the world had been swept from the seas. Alien flags, save for that of the United States, were flown only in furtive blockade runners. Men with limited imagination might be tempted to contemplate the prospect of the whole carrying trade, of the whole business of the world, being conducted under the British flag without rival. Prizes were rare nowadays, and men with a greed for gold could eye covetously the rich American shipping. Admirals and captains had built up immense fortunes out of prize money in happy years not so long ago. War with America might make it possible again, and the ignoble motive could well be excused by the plea that every prize brought into a British port would increase British wealth. War with America would certainly put an end to the nagging problem of desertion to American ships. War would teach a lesson to the upstarts who had once taken advantage of England’s misfortunes to gain their independence and who now boasted of their liberty. To shortsighted British naval officers, and to those members of the British public who were also shortsighted while taking an interest in naval affairs, there was nothing to fear, and much that was attractive, about the prospect of war with America.

So public opinion in England did little to check the British Government in its offensive attitude. It is noteworthy that, when at last convinced that the United States would not flinch from war, the British Cabinet hastily revoked the Orders-in-Council relative to the blockade of Europe, but held fast to the British claim to the right to search neutral vessels for British subjects, so that it may be said that it was on account of this claim, and this claim only, that England was prepared to go to war. It is an over-simplification of the case, however. The basic reason for war was really to be found in the attitude of mind of the two Governments and of sections of the two peoples; the mutual irritation was skilfully envenomed by Bonaparte’s diplomacy. A few concessions early in the controversy; a few lavish promises made later (even though only paper promises like Bonaparte’s—but the British Cabinet was incapable of rising to such heights of ingenuity or sinking to such depths of duplicity); a few well-publicized restraints put upon British naval officers; a few unmistakable evidences of goodwill; some public appreciation of the difficulties of Mr Madison’s task; perhaps even a mere well-timed sop to Mr Madison’s vanity; any of these might have turned the rising tide of war.

But war it was, and England had to fight, and she had to make plans as to how to employ her strength and how to minimize her weaknesses. There was the first and most obvious move, to be expected of a nation with vast experience of maritime warfare. The London Gazette, as soon as certain news of the declaration of war reached the Cabinet, published an Order-in-Council, wherein it was ordered that ‘commanders of H.M.’s ships-of-war and privateers do detain and bring into port all ships and vessels belonging to citizens of the United States of America.’ American commerce was to be swept from the seas. Yet that very same issue of the Gazette carried an Admiralty Order, wherein the Commissioners for executing the Office of Lord High Admiral announced that ‘we do hereby revoke and declare null and void and of no effect all licences granted by us to any ship or vessel to sail without convoy to any port or place of North America, Newfoundland, the West Indies, or the Gulf of Mexico.’ The nuisance value of the American declaration of war was admitted in these lines. The valuable West Indian trade had recently been freed from the trammels of local convoy, for the capture of the last of the French islands had deprived French privateers of any base in the Caribbean; Spanish privateers had ceased to be hostile with the commencement of the Peninsular War. Now the whole trade was to be subjected once again to the delays, expense, and inconvenience of convoy. The Convoy Act was all-embracing in its provisions and severe in the penalties it imposed. No British ship could obtain clearance without the local Collector of Customs being satisfied that convoy was available; and the Admiralty Order implied not only that the great outward- and homeward-bound fleets should be escorted, but that the inter-island trade which built up the homeward-bound convoys and into which the outward-bound convoys dispersed was immobilized in the absence of vessels to guard it. This meant an inevitable accumulation of delays which no amount of organization could reduce; and it also meant a constant demand for escort vessels in the Caribbean which it was not easy to meet in the face of the other demands for naval force.

During this year Great Britain had at sea, refitting, or repairing, 191 ships-of-the-line, and 245 frigates and ships of 50 guns; she had several hundred smaller ships-of-war, and she had in hand an extensive building programme to increase this force still more. There was a man serving in her fighting fleet for every two hundred men and women and children in her population. And yet this enormous force was stretched very thinly, thanks to Bonaparte’s policy of building ships all round the coast of Europe, from Venice to Lubeck. His ships-of-the-line were not greatly fewer than those of England, although their manning was immeasurably inferior; and they had to be watched constantly in case at their ‘selected moment’ they should burst out and gain at least a local superiority over the Royal Navy at its ‘average moment’. With the American declaration of war vigilance appeared more necessary, for alarmists in England conjured up a nightmare of a French squadron eluding the blockade and reaching an American port. Based there, and with its crews filled up with capable American seamen, it could cause the infinity of trouble—it was thought—that could have been caused by an American squadron of ships-of-the-line for which thoughtful Americans had pleaded in the wasted years of the past. The danger was actually not very serious; relations between the United States Government and that of the Empire were hardly cordial, and the friction that would have arisen in any attempt to co-operate between French admirals and American officials would have reduced to a minimum the activity of any blockade-running squadron. In the twenty-two months that France remained a belligerent no effort was made to carry out the scheme, but the Admiralty could not be sure of that; in war the side conducting a nervous defensive is always liable to over-estimate the strength, and to under-estimate the difficulties, of the potential attacker.

England had much else to be nervous about. She was maintaining in the Spanish peninsula a British army which represented almost her entire military strength; she was maintaining a Portuguese army; she was maintaining what was left of the Spanish armies, all locked in a life-and-death struggle with the Imperial forces. Her stake there was enormous; it is almost no exaggeration to say that her national existence depended on the integrity of her sea communications with Lisbon. Two thousand ships a year carried to the Peninsula the military stores, the troops, the money—even much of the food for the civilian population—which kept the struggle going. The line of communication curved round the French flank temptingly close to the French Biscay ports; now it must be guarded on the side of the Atlantic from any thrust the American Government—or American private enterprise—could contrive to make at it. Of any single sea route travelled by British ships this was the most vital and the most vulnerable, but there was a vastly important trade with India; British ships sailed to China, to the Philippines, to Australia; British whalers traversed the Pacific, and they must all be guarded against possible raiders. It was not to be wondered at that the Admiralty found difficulty in scraping together a naval force to watch the American seaboard; the strain was so severe as to be almost intolerable.

It was at least an interesting coincidence that relief from the strain made itself felt immediately. Already coincidence had come to Britain’s aid. The effects of the Embargo and of Non-Intercourse had been greatly modified because Bonaparte’s reckless interference in Peninsular affairs had at that time opened first the Portuguese and then the Spanish colonies to British trade. Now the same Gazette that carried the notices of the American declaration of war, and the orders about West Indian convoys, carried more heartening news. ‘In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity’ it was declared by Their Majesties the King of Sweden and the King of Great Britain and Ireland that there should be between them ‘a firm, true, and inviolable Peace.’ There was a hurried and ecstatic announcement that peace had been signed with Russia, too, backed up by an instant revocation of the Order-in-Council that commanded general reprisals against the Russians. There was the text of the decree opening Swedish ports to British trade. Now the very considerable forces which had been watching Sweden and Russia could be reduced; and, of great importance as well, Sweden would resume her supply of naval stores at the same moment as America discontinued hers.

The Grand Army had crossed the Niemen. The Imperial hordes, urged on by the Imperial freebooter, were pouring into Russia, destined for Moscow—and destined to retreat from Moscow, such of them as survived. And Wellington had crossed the Agueda, marching out of Portugal with an incomparable British Army to free three-quarters of Spain from French dominion and to strike the shattering blow of Salamanca that would cause the French military structure to totter on its foundations. It was all in the same week that Bonaparte crossed the Niemen, that Wellington crossed the Agueda, and Mr Madison crossed the Rubicon.