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At the beginning of the fourth century, under the reign of Constantine, a great revolution transpired in Christian history; in the wake of persecution, Christianity suddenly found itself in imperial favor. This development exerted a profound influence on the development of Christian art. It blossomed openly in new and richer forms. Churches were erected everywhere. “In each city,” wrote the contemporary ecclesiastical historian Eusebius, “celebrations take place for the consecration of churches and newly constructed oratories. On this occasion, the bishops assemble, pilgrims come rushing in from distant lands; one sees the sudden outpouring of affection from man to his fellow man.” Constantine himself was the driving force behind this movement and, in order to increase the number of holy structures, put the riches of the State at the disposal of the Christians.

The transformation of ancient Byzantium into Constantinople is a milestone in history. A consequence of this change was the division of the former Roman Empire into two parts, which were fated to meet different ends. Constantinople became the axis of a brilliant civilisation, where eastern influences were mixed with Hellenism. From this viewpoint, its geographic situation is indeed enviable: Constantinople was connected with both Europe and Asia; its vessels could harbour within its vast and secure port, keeping the city in continuous contact on one side with the regions of the Black Sea and on the other, with all the peoples of the Mediterranean. Thence came the immense influence that the city exerted during the Middle Ages, as well as its splendour and wealth.

It was in 324 that Constantine chose Byzantium. In Antiquity, certain religious rites were followed to found a city. In the well-known story, Romulus traced the first outline of Rome with the blade of a plow. A fourth century historian recounts that Constantine himself also traced the outline of the new capital with the point of his lance. He said that he was following the indications of an angel, who was walking in front of him. Work on the city was accelerated to such a degree that, according to one chronicler, the consecration supposedly took place only nine months later. It is true that a city can be consecrated, just as with a church, long before termination. The ceremonial consecration date for Constantinople is recorded: it took place on the eleventh of May, 330. The circumstances surrounding this event are indicative of the role assigned to Constantinople by the emperor: it was to be a Christian capital, and he entrusted the blessing of his city to the bishops. In addition, “he ordered by law,” writes the historian Socrates Scholasticus, “that she would be called the second Rome. This law was carved on a marble table placed in the Strategeion, near the equestrian statue of the emperor.”

Christ in Majesty Giving a Blessing, fourth century. Opus sectile.

Ostia Museum, Ostia, Italy.

In planning the new capital, Constantine was preoccupied with imitating Rome. Like Rome, Constantinople had seven hills and was divided into fourteen regions; there was even a Capitoline Hill. The main Forum, known as the Augustaeum, remained famous throughout the entire Middle Ages. It may have predated Constantine, who was content simply to embellish it. A portico dominated all four sides, and statues were placed underneath. Among these was a group representing Constantine and his mother, Helena, standing to either side of the cross. This archetype has remained traditional in the East and can still be found reproduced on frescos and engravings.

The period extending from Constantine to Justinian was a formative age for Byzantine art. Christian architecture was the progeny of Greco-roman architecture but in certain regions of the East, especially in Syria, it had already undergone drastic changes, made more complex by foreign elements. Today, it can be experienced through the ruins of Palmyra and Baalbek by the layout, the appearance of the principal lines, and the decoration. These constructions have an original appearance; what is especially remarkable is the tendency to substitute curves for straight lines, archways for shouldered flat arches. The new trend spread rapidly. Already at the beginning of the fourth century, there was a palace in Dalmatia that had roots in this Asiatic architecture, that of Diocletian who had resided in Asia during his entire reign and then retired to Solin after abdicating.

The Byzantine Empire, such as it were after the death of Theodosius, must have exerted its new influence with a certain degree of force, as the Asian provinces were bringing their prosperity and the luster of their civilisation to the European provinces, and it was there that Hellenistic thought proved to be more active and creative. Even during the time of Constantine, Christian architects in Asia seem to have already proven to be more innovative. If circular churches were found in the West, in the East they seem to have been of a bolder design: the church in Antioch was especially astonishing to people of the time. This type of structure is no longer seen in the ancient Byzantine Empire, save as one well preserved monument, and it is true that it is not found in Asia at all save in Thessaloniki: it is a vast rotunda, measuring 24 metres in diameter. Within the thickness of the walls, seven vaulted chapels are housed; an eighth, situated on the axis of the main door, is farther inward and forms a long apse of 19.37 metres, which stands apart within the walls. This church had probably served previously as the mausoleum of the emperor Galerius.

Baptistry of Neon, 458.

Marble. Ravenna, Italy.

The Good Shepherd and the Starry Sky, fifth century. Mosaic.

Galla Placidia Mausoleum, Ravenna, Italy.

The Good Shepherd (detail), fifth century. Mosaic.

Galla Placidia Mausoleum, Ravenna, Italy.

The Tetrarchs: Diocletian, Maximian, Constantius Chlorus, and Galerius, fourth century.

Porphyry. South façade of St. Mark’s Basilica, Venice.

One can quietly observe the attempts leading up to the development of the cupola atop pendentives. In Seleucia and Ctesiphon, the cupola can be found used over a square design. The trail of this innovative spirit is found in the monuments that can still be appreciated, such as the church of St. Demetrios in Thessaloniki. The basic layout is of a basilica with an atrium, narthex, and partial double walls, but inside, there are two levels, and the upper encircles the church, reaching even over the narthex. The capitals, the heads of columns, already take on distinctive shapes. They are generally still connected with antique forms, though altered. They are made of two parts, and it is not the main section that receives the most acute pressure from the arches; it weighs on the headboards, which form a sort of upper capital. It is a small jump from this innovation to the superposition of two genuine capitals. Additionally, in two places, one is struck by even more creative forms: classical examples were abandoned completely for bell-shaped capitals, sculpted in the contemporary style, that is to say as a sort of cubic mass around which ornamentation winds its way, which simulates an additional sculpture.

In Constantinople itself, from Constantine to Justinian, the construction of thirty-eight new churches or monasteries has been noted, according to a Byzantine chronicler. Hardly any details are available on their architectonic characteristics; it seems, however, that after a fire, the Hagia Sophia was reconstructed “with cylindrical vaults”. There, as in Asia, the architects, who were called upon incessantly to produce new works, had to compete zealously. It fell to them to discover ingenious and original combinations. While in the West the misfortunes of the empire distracted people from artistic matters, in the East, a generally more positive situation favored their development. Rather than reproduce the same models over and over, with less intelligence and less care, Greek architects were constantly modifying and perfecting them.

From this time on, the mosaic was more and more the preferred decorative style. In St. George of Thessaloniki, the cupola covering the church was decorated entirely in mosaics. Today, only a portion of it remains; there are large compartments where saints are located standing upright, in an orant posture, amid a rich architectural framework. The craftsmanship of these mosaics is extremely beautiful, and, despite the mutilations they have suffered and their faded colours, they give off a very grand effect. The slightest ornamental details bear witness to a fine and delicate taste; arabesques and palmette bands are elegantly designed.

The mosaics of the fifth century, which decorate the churches of Ravenna in Italy, must also be attributed to Byzantine art. Before this city became the residence of the Byzantine governor of Italy under Justinian, it was already artistically linked to the East. The mosaics of the Orthodox Baptistery and the Galla Placidia Mausoleum are distinguished by the rich craftsmanship and the pleasing harmony of the decor.

Great Palace Mosaic, late fifth to early sixth century. Mosaic.

Great Palace Mosaic Museum, Istanbul.

At the Baptistery, the Baptism of Christ is portrayed on a large medallion, forming the center of the cupola. In curious contrast, the Jordan River is present in this scene in the guise of a fluvial god, which is striking evidence of the persistent influence of ancient art. Along the outer edge of the medallion winds a circular band with full length images of the twelve apostles. Although they all give the same general impression, the artist avoided too high a level of monotony by slightly varying positions and giving individual characteristics to each face. Farther down still, a second band is decorated in architectonic patterns. Finally, near to the ground, among the golden arabesques, the faces of eight saints stand out. In the Galla Placidia Mausoleum, the decor remains intact. Above the door, immediately within the entrance, a mosaic representing the Good Shepherd recalls classical works with its free style. Seated amid his flock, the Shepherd caresses a ewe with his right hand, while in his left he holds a cross with a long descending arm; the face, surrounded by blond curls, radiates a calm and uniform beauty.

Throughout the rest of the chapel are other figures in ancient dress. The ornamentation is elegant in design and rich in colour; amid the arabesques, which couple green with gold, two stags drink from a spring. This motif is one found in the illuminations of manuscripts up through the final days of Byzantine art.

During this time a taste for metalwork was already spreading, which would subsequently continue to develop. It was a response to a love of luxury which, as previously seen, is one of the characteristics of Constantinian art. Constantine introduced the diadem and adorned his clothes with pearls and precious stones – the pomposity of his wealth seemed to him to be an exterior symbol of his power; the attitude of the emperor contributed to the penetration of these ideas into the artistic realm. It was considered better to honour religion and to increase the beauty of Christian monuments than to attempt to decorate them with the rarest of materials. To the churches of Rome, Constantine donated five foot tall reproductions, in gold and silver, of the Savior, the apostles, and angels. His generosity was no less in the East. After describing the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Eusebius adds, “One wouldn’t know how to say how many adornments and gifts of gold, silver, and precious stones with which Constantine enriched it. These works were crafted with art.” In Constantinople, he also mentions golden bas-reliefs. In the palace and in many public squares in the city towered golden crosses, decorated with fine stones.

Nothing of these works done in precious materials remains today. One could guess the style of the figures and ornamentation that adorned them based on a lead font, intended for holy water, whose Greek inscription is indicative of its origin. Diverse characters are displayed: next to the Good Shepherd, a gladiator is depicted at the moment just after seizing the crown laid on a cippus. Next to these subjects are found bands of pampres, palms, and peacocks drinking from a bowl; the four rivers of terrestrial paradise spill from a butte surmounted by a cross, with stags present, drinking. In one corner, a Nereid sits astride a seahorse. This peculiar mélange of paganism and Christianity was very common in the fourth century.

Theodosian Walls, 412–413.

Istanbul.

Plan of the Hagia Sophia, sectional view, 537.

Hagia Sophia, Istanbul.

Hagia Sophia, southern view, 537.

Hagia Sophia, Istanbul.