Читать книгу Astrobiology - Charles S. Cockell - Страница 105

The lipid bilayers found in life are assembled into more complex structures. It was recognized early in the study of cellular membranes that the bilayer is filled with different proteins that play roles in attachment to surfaces, transport of nutrients into the cell, and movement of waste outward. This led to the concept of the fluid-mosaic model of the membrane, where the word “mosaic” is a reference to its similar appearance to a mosaic or tiled art work. The complexity of membranes reflects the fact that although crudely we can think of it as a “bag” to hold cell constituents in, it is also a gateway in and out of the cell during the cell's many interactions with the environment. It is instructive to explore the complexity of the membrane a little more to understand these ideas.

In bacteria, membranes can be broadly separated into Gram-positive and Gram-negative membrane structures, a separation defined by how organisms stain in the Gram stain, a method of dyeing bacteria developed by microbiologist Hans Christian Gram (1853–1938) in the nineteenth century. In the Gram stain, microorganisms are first stained with crystal violet stain, which gives them a dark blue/violet color. After washing with ethanol and adding a paler dye (safranin), Gram-positive organisms retain the dye and show up as dark blue, whereas Gram-negative organisms lose it, becoming a red color. These differences are understood to be due to the quite different membrane structures in the two groups of organisms.

Gram-negative membranes (found, for example, in the ubiquitous gut bacterium E. coli) have an inner and outer membrane. The inner membrane is the plasma membrane. The space between the inner and outer membrane is termed the periplasm. The liquid in this space is somewhat more viscous than the cytoplasm and contains a wide variety of proteins involved in sugar and amino acid transport.

Sandwiched between the inner and outer membrane is a peptidoglycan mesh (Figure 5.6) containing just a few layers of peptidoglycan. Peptidoglycan is a complex matrix made up of sugars cross-linked to amino acids. It is one of the few structures in life that contains D-amino acids (Figure 5.7). The peptidoglycan helps the cell maintain its shape, and it is involved in cell division.

Figure 5.6 Gram-negative and Gram-positive cell membranes.

Figure 5.7 A typical structure of peptidoglycan. The pentaglycine cross-link is made from five glycine amino acids. N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid are sugars and are derivatives of the sugar glucose.

Other structures in the membrane include porins, which are one class of outer-membrane proteins. They control the movement of ions and other small compounds across the cell membrane. There are other trans-membrane proteins involved in communication and interactions between the cell and the outside environment. Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), long sugar chains attached to the outer membrane with lipids, are involved in the attachment of cells to surfaces. A variety of lipoproteins within the inner envelope of the outer cell membrane take part in mediating biochemical reactions. They also play a role in linking the outer membrane to the peptidoglycan layer.

In Gram-positive cell walls (Figure 5.6) there is one cell membrane, with a periplasmic space above it, and the cell is surrounded by a thick peptidoglycan mesh made up of around 40 peptidoglycan layers (between 30 and 100 nm thick, compared to the Gram-negative peptidoglycan layer, which is just a few nanometers thick). Teichoic acids and lipoteichoic acids are long-chain sugars present on the surface and threaded through the peptidoglycan layers. They are involved in the integrity of the peptidoglycan layers, but some also play a role in cell attachment, like the LPS in the Gram-negative cell wall. An example of a Gram-positive organism is the very versatile bacterium Bacillus subtilis, found in diverse places from soils to spacecraft assembly rooms.

The structures outside of the plasma membrane in both Gram-positive and negative bacteria are generally referred to as the cell wall.