Читать книгу Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology - Chris Binns - Страница 4

1 c00Figure I.1 The nanoworld. The size range of interest in nanotechnology and s...Figure I.2 Ancient incremental nanotechnology. Copper nanocrystals of about ...Figure I.3 Evolutionary nanotechnology – a single nanoparticle acting as a d...Figure I.4 Self‐assembly of single‐nanoparticle transistors. Ill...Figure I.5 Theranostic nanoparticle for the diagnosis and treatment of cance...Figure I.6 The smallest wineglass in the World (authorised by Guinness World...Figure I.7 Top–down nanotechnology used to attach electrodes to a nanopartic...

2 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Manganese nanoparticles on bucky balls. STM image (see Chapter 5,...Figure 1.2 Distance range encompassing all current scientific knowledge. Dis...Figure 1.3 Democritus. Bronze bust thought to be of Democritus at the Naples...Figure 1.4 Simple experiment to demonstrate magnetic domains. (a) Soft Fe do...Figure 1.5 Single‐domain particles. Domain formation in Fe to minimize...Figure 1.6 Magnetic bacterium using single‐domain particles. The Magne...Figure 1.7 Size‐dependent behavior in nanoparticles. For particles sma...Figure 1.8 Measuring the magnetic moment in free nanoparticles. The magnetic...Figure 1.9 Measured magnetic moments per atom in magnetic nanoparticles. Exp...Figure 1.10 Morphology of nanoparticle film. STM image (see Chapter 5, Secti...Figure 1.11 Producing nanostructured films by cluster beam deposition. Nanos...Figure 1.12 High‐moment films produced by cluster beam deposition. Mag...Figure 1.13 Grain size in nanostructured materials. Electron microscope imag...Figure 1.14 Yield strength of aluminum alloys. Comparison of Deformation (St...Figure 1.15 Reactivity of gold nanoparticles. Measured activities of gold na...Figure 1.16 Silver nanoparticles attacking bacteria. Electron microscope ima...Figure 1.17 Silver nanoparticles attached to HIV‐1. (a) Computer‐gener...

3 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Sources of background nanoparticles. (a) Volcanoes and (b) forest...Figure 2.2 Size distribution of urban aerosol. The concentration of airborne...Figure 2.3 Nanoparticles produced by candles. The size distribution of parti...Figure 2.4 Nanoparticles and the lungs. (a) Anatomy of finest bronchial tube...Figure 2.5 Translocation of Au nanoparticles from the lungs into blood circu...Figure 2.6 Frustrated phagocytosis. Scanning electron microscopy image of ma...Figure 2.7 Villi and microvilli of the small intestine. The surface of the c...Figure 2.8 Structure of skin. Human skin consists of three basic layers labe...Figure 2.9 Relative sizes of particles involved in clouds. Comparison of a C...Figure 2.10 Effect of nanoparticles on DCCs. In clouds that lack nanoparticl...Figure 2.11 Phytoplankton bloom in the North Sea. Clouds of phytoplankton ar...Figure 2.12 Composition of particles produced by phytoplankton. (a) Seasonal...Figure 2.13 Maunder minimum and the little ice age. The Plot, using historic...Figure 2.14 Rosetta mission to comet 67P/Churyumov‐Gerasimenko. (a) Ph...Figure 2.15 Pollution of soil and groundwater by anthropogenic activities. R...Figure 2.16 Application of nZVI particles to groundwater remediation. In the...Figure 2.17 Magnetic separation of Pb contamination from water. (a) Suspensi...Figure 2.18 Polymerization of ethylene to produce polyethylene. (a) Ethylene...Figure 2.19 Catalyst for upscaling waste plastic. (a) Pt particles with a di...

4 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Carbon bonding in diamond and graphite. Illustration of bonding o...Figure 3.2 Graphene sheet. (a) A single hexagonal layer of carbon atoms (gra...Figure 3.3 First detection of C60. Time of flight mass spectrum of carbon cl...Figure 3.4 Structure of C60. The atomic structure of a C₆₀ molecule or “buck...Figure 3.5 Euler’s theorem. Verification of Euler’s theorem for a cube...Figure 3.6 Direct imaging of the formation of C60 from giant fullerenes. Ser...Figure 3.7 Small fullerene structures. Structure of closed‐cage fullerene cl...Figure 3.8 Endohedral fullerene. Introducing metal atoms into the vapor in w...Figure 3.9 Endohedral fullerenes produced by implanting ions. Fullerenes can...Figure 3.10 Icosahedral structure of C540. The fullerene C₅₄₀, which corresp...Figure 3.11 Structure of C70. The structure of C₇₀ consisting of 25 hexagona...Figure 3.12 C60 adsorbed on Si(100). STM image of C₆₀ molecules adsorbed on ...Figure 3.13 Face‐centered cubic structure of C60 fullerite. (a) The un...Figure 3.14 Structure of C60 ‐ alkali metal fullerides. (a) Octahedral...Figure 3.15 First reported images of carbon nanotubes. Electron microscope i...Figure 3.16 Chirality of nanotubes. Starting with an infinite graphene sheet...Figure 3.17 System for specifying nanotube chiralities. (a) The tube is spec...Figure 3.18 Measuring the resistance of individual nanotubes. Schematic of e...Figure 3.19 Field emission from carbon nanotubes. (a) Schematic showing how ...Figure 3.20 Measurement of the tensile strength of individual SWNTs. (a) Ind...Figure 3.21 Testing of an individual MWNT for use as a “nano cheesewire.”...Figure 3.22 Definition of thermal conductivity. If a temperature gradient G ...Figure 3.23 Carbon nanohorns. (a) Morphology of nanoparticles formed by carb...Figure 3.24 Nanobuds and Peapods. (a) Nanobud structure (TEM image and schem...

5 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Dimensionality of materials. The dimensionality of a material is ...Figure 4.2 Quantum states of conduction electrons in a metal. (a) The states...Figure 4.3 Quantum states of electrons in an intrinsic and n‐doped semicondu...Figure 4.4 Quantum states a p‐doped semiconductor. (a) Inserting a tri...Figure 4.5 Electron charge distribution in graphene. (a) Three out of the fo...Figure 4.6 Valence and conduction bands of graphene. (a) Bandstructure of gr...Figure 4.7 Ambipolar effect in graphene. (a) Schematic of a graphene sheet p...Figure 4.8 Conductivity vs. gate voltage in a graphene FET. The conductivity...Figure 4.9 Definition of thermal conductivity in graphene. The thermal condu...Figure 4.10 Measurement of thermal conductivity of graphene by Raman spectro...Figure 4.11 Variation of graphene Raman G peak position with laser power. (a...Figure 4.12 Method for measuring the tensile strength of graphene. A graphen...Figure 4.13 Superstructures formed by stacking two graphene sheets at an ang...Figure 4.14 Superconducting transition temperature vs. twist angle. Variatio...Figure 4.15 Electrical properties of bilayer graphene at the magic angle as ...Figure 4.16 Energy densities for various battery technologies. Plot of the v...Figure 4.17 Process for producing stable mesoporous graphene anodes. Startin...Figure 4.18 Storage capacity of mesoporous graphene anodes with cycle number...Figure 4.19 Synthesis of mesoporous graphene (graphene popcorn) using SiO2 n...Figure 4.20 Miniature accelerometer based on a graphene bilayer strip. (a) S...Figure 4.21 Process to produce controlled pores in graphene membrane. (a) Pr...

6 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Log‐normal size distribution. Distribution of particle diam...Figure 5.2 Schematic of nanoparticle beam source. Generic design of a nanopa...Figure 5.3 Schematics of the main types of source using supersaturated vapor...Figure 5.4 Basic structural arrangements of multi‐element nanoparticles....Figure 5.5 Multi‐element nanoparticle sources. (a) Sputter source that...Figure 5.6 Core@shell@shell Co@Ag@Au nanoparticles. (a) Representation of th...Figure 5.7 Sequential methods for producing core‐shell nanoparticles. ...Figure 5.8 Simple parallel‐plate electrostatic filter. (a) Simple para...Figure 5.9 Types of mass spectrometer used to mass filter nanoparticle beams...Figure 5.10 Mass spectra at high and low resolution. (a) High‐resolution TOF...Figure 5.11 Electronic shell filling and atomic packing origins of magic num...Figure 5.12 Aerodynamic lensing. (a) A series of axial restrictions in the g...Figure 5.13 Methods of production of nanoparticle aerosol. (a) Spark source ...Figure 5.14 Sizing and counting particles in aerosols. (a) DMA that determin...Figure 5.15 Chemical synthesis of FePt nanoparticles. The preparation of mon...Figure 5.16 Self‐ordered arrays of chemically produced FePt nanoparticles....Figure 5.17 Nanoparticle synthesis using dendrimers. (a) G5 PAMAM dendrimer....Figure 5.18 Gas‐phase synthesis of hydrosols. A multi‐element nanopart...Figure 5.19 Size distributions in hydrosols measured by PTA. (a) A NanosightFigure 5.20 Size distributions in hydrosols measured by DLS. (a) Basic setup...Figure 5.21 Some methods for graphene synthesis. (a) Mechanical exfoliation ...Figure 5.22 Methods for large‐scale synthesis of carbon nanotubes. (a)...Figure 5.23 Growth of vertically aligned nanotubes by PECVD. (a) Under the r...Figure 5.24 “Nanobamas.” The face of President Obama synthesized...Figure 5.25 Direct observation of SWNT growing from a metal catalyst nanopar...Figure 5.26 Mechanism of SWNT growth from a metal catalyst nanoparticle. (a)...Figure 5.27 Creating metal nanostructures on a Si surface using EBL. The bar...Figure 5.28 35 nm CoPt magnetic dots produced by EBL. SEM image of an ...Figure 5.29 Liquid metal ion source. (a) Formation of Taylor cone on applyin...Figure 5.30 Schematic of ion beam column. The LMIS and extractor provide the...Figure 5.31 Products of incident ion beam. When the energetic ions hit the s...Figure 5.32 Magnetic AND gate produced by FIB milling. Magnetic AND gate pat...Figure 5.33 Ion sputtering with precursor gases. (a) Chemically enhanced FIB...Figure 5.34 Comparison of milling and deposition using an FIB. SEM image of ...Figure 5.35 Four‐point probe conductivity measurement on single carbon nanot...Figure 5.36 SQUID with Josephson junctions formed by an SWNT. (a) Atomic for...Figure 5.37 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy. (a) Schematic of a STM with an at...Figure 5.38 Atomic resolution STM images. (a) Si(111) surface showing (7 × 7...Figure 5.39 STM tunneling tips. (a) SEM image of an STM tip produced by elec...Figure 5.40 First demonstration of manipulating individual atoms using an ST...Figure 5.41 Mechanism for moving atoms with an STM. (a) Initially a scan is ...Figure 5.42 Quantum corrals assembled from Fe atoms on a Cu(111) surface. Di...Figure 5.43 C60 Abacus. C₆₀ molecules manipulated using an STM on a stepped ...Figure 5.44 STS of C60 molecules adsorbed on Si(100) 2 × 1 surface....Figure 5.45 Atomic Force Microscopy. (a) A standard commercial cantilever is...Figure 5.46 Deflection of cantilever approaching surface. Schematic of canti...Figure 5.47 Atomic resolution noncontact AFM image of Si(111) 7 × 7 surface....Figure 5.48 MFM of a magnetic sample using lift mode. (a) MFM of a magnetic ...Figure 5.49 AFM of TrV capsids. (a) Topography of a TrV virus capsid in ECF,...Figure 5.50 Dip‐Pen Nanolithography. (a) Illustration of the basic met...Figure 5.51 Nanoarrays for the ultrasensitive detection of biological molecu...Figure 5.52 High‐resolution TEM image of a Au nanoparticle. Image of a...Figure 5.53 Optical and magnetic lenses. (a) Optical lens. (b) Magnetic lens...Figure 5.54 Lacy carbon TEM sample grid. (a) Standard 3 mm TEM sample grid n...Figure 5.55 Atomic‐scale elemental mapping by EDX. Chemical map of Sr ...

7 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 MFM image of 394 Gb/in2 disk. Magnetic force microscope (MF...Figure 6.2 Medium for HAMR. FePt nanoparticles with a size ~5 nm for use as ...Figure 6.3 Ordered array of FePt nanoparticles. AFM image of an ordered arra...Figure 6.4 Writing to CoPt nanoparticle array using MFM. An array of CoPt na...Figure 6.5 Array of 5 × 5 AFM cantilevers for parallel operation....Figure 6.6 Fluorescence from a bulk semiconductor. (a) An electron is promot...Figure 6.7 Fluorescence from CdSe quantum dots of different sizes. Change in...Figure 6.8 CdSe/ZnS core–shell quantum dot. Coating a CdSe quantum dot...Figure 6.9 Quantum dot solar cell. Typical device configuration for a quantu...Figure 6.10 Perovskite quantum dot solar cell. Record performance solar cell...Figure 6.11 Carbon nanoparticle solar cell. (a) Schematic of the device stru...Figure 6.12 Field‐Effect Transistor. Basic configuration of an FET. Wi...Figure 6.13 Moore's Law. Growth in the number of transistors per micropr...Figure 6.14 Coulomb blockade in a nanoparticle SET. (a) Schematic of a nanop...Figure 6.15 Fabrication of Au nanoparticle SET. (a) Drop of 20 nm Au nanopar...Figure 6.16 Coulomb blockade behavior in Au nanoparticle SET. (a) Current th...Figure 6.17 Current vs. bias voltage for a C60 SET. The top inset displays t...Figure 6.18 Tunneling combined with excitation of quantized oscillations in ...Figure 6.19 Graphene–Porphyrin SET. (a) Porphyrin molecule used as the...Figure 6.20 Stability diagram of the porphyrin SET at 300 K. Two‐dimen...Figure 6.21 Synthesis of carbon nanotube SET. Stages in the construction of ...Figure 6.22 Construction of a carbon nanotube FET integrated circuit. (a) AF...

8 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Particle moving in a viscous fluid. For a particle moving in a vi...Figure 7.2 Relative sizes of water molecules and nanoparticle. 10‐nm‐diamete...Figure 7.3 Random walk in three dimensions. (a) Example of a random walk on ...Figure 7.4 Fick’s law. The flux, J, through a plane perpendicular to a...Figure 7.5 Formation of EDL around nanoparticles in suspension. (a) charges ...Figure 7.6 Interactions between Au nanoparticles in water. (a) Interaction e...Figure 7.7 Interactions between maghemite nanoparticles in water. Interactio...Figure 7.8 Total interaction energy at high charge density. Total (Van der W...Figure 7.9 Steric repulsion of nanoparticles coated in polymers. The higher ...Figure 7.10 Synthesis methods for bulk nanobubbles. (a) Hydrodynamic cavitat...Figure 7.11 Nanobubbles produced by electrolysis of brine. (a) Nanobubble si...Figure 7.12 Measurement of the size distribution of nanobubbles and the Tynd...Figure 7.13 FF–TEM images of bulk nanobubbles. (a)–(c) FF–TEM images o...Figure 7.14 Zeta potential vs. gas type, pH, NaCl concentration and temperat...Figure 7.15 Tapping mode AFM images of surface nanobubbles on HOPG. (a) Typi...Figure 7.16 Nonintrusive optical imaging of surface nanobubbles. (a) Optical...Figure 7.17 Surface cleaning by nanobubbles. (a) Effect of exposure of a BSA...Figure 7.18 Promotion of plant growth by water containing nanobubbles. The g...Figure 7.19 Classical flow of fluid through a pipe. The velocity v_y(z) as a ...Figure 7.20 Manufacture of nanotube flow capillary. (a) Nanotube inserted in...Figure 7.21 Measured jet velocities and momentum fluxes through CNTs and BNN...Figure 7.22 Measured permeabilities and slip length as a function of radius ...

9 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Generic types of nanovectors for diagnosis and treatment. (a) Ful...Figure 8.2 Size of nanoparticles used in medicine compared with biological a...Figure 8.3 Sizes of blood cells relative to nanoparticles. (a) Erythrocyte o...Figure 8.4 Types of core nanoparticles used in medical applications to scale...Figure 8.5 Traditional explanation of enhanced permeability and retention (E...Figure 8.6 Cell regions. Labeling of different portions of the internal regi...Figure 8.7 Structure of plasma membrane. (a) Phospholipid molecule. (b) Plas...Figure 8.8 Membrane proteins. The two basic types of membrane protein.Figure 8.9 Cell internal structure. The internal structure of a cell showing...Figure 8.10 Cytoskeleton. Structure of the cytoskeleton composed of three di...Figure 8.11 Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Microscope image of a group of sk...Figure 8.12 Localization of quantum dots in MSCs. Confocal microscope image ...Figure 8.13 Schematic image of an antibody showing the ‘socket set’ view of ...Figure 8.14 Nucleobases and DNA. Left: The four nucleobases in DNA. Right: T...Figure 8.15 Targeting using aptamers. Image of three prostate cancer cells t...Figure 8.16 Dendritic nanovector. Computer model of the dendritic carbon nan...Figure 8.17 Magnetic vectoring. (a) Fe@Au core‐shell nanoparticle consisting...Figure 8.18 Nanoparticle hyperthermia of a tumor embedded in healthy tissue.Figure 8.19 Magforce nanoactivator. System for conducting hyperthermia, whic...Figure 8.20 Safe limits on the applied alternating magnetic field. Regions o...Figure 8.21 Heating mechanisms of magnetic nanoparticles. (a) Small nanopart...Figure 8.22 Calculations of SAR vs d0 parameter for magnetic nanoparticles. ...Figure 8.23 SAR vs. frequency for Fe@Fe oxide nanoparticles. (a) A typical F...Figure 8.24 Near‐infrared window of tissue. Absorption coefficient as ...Figure 8.25 Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) in a Au nanoparticle. Illustrati...Figure 8.26 Light extinction by a nanoparticle. After encountering a nanopar...Figure 8.27 Extinction by Au nanoparticles. Extinction efficiency of Au nano...Figure 8.28 Extinction vs. size for Au nanoparticles. Calculations of the ab...Figure 8.29 Extinction by core‐shell nanoparticles. Extinction vs. wav...Figure 8.30 Extinction by Au nanorods. (a) The wavelength of the SPR in Au n...Figure 8.31 Optical and structural properties of nanomatryoshkas and nanoshe...Figure 8.32 Infrared hyperthermia with carbon nanotubes. (a) Schematic of th...Figure 8.33 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). (a) MRI images using hydrogen ...Figure 8.34 MRI contrast enhancement by superparamagnetic iron oxide nanopar...Figure 8.35 MRI contrast enhancement by spinel ferrite nanoparticles. (a) TE...Figure 8.36 Relaxivity of high‐performance MRI contrast agents vs. d2 × Ms2....Figure 8.37 Development of MPI between 2005 and 2009. (a) Static image of Re...Figure 8.38 Operating principle of MPI. (a) Schematic of the geometry of the...Figure 8.39 State of the art in MPI. (a) Bruker MPI scanner for small animal...Figure 8.40 Identifying cervical epithelial cancer cells using Au nanopartic...Figure 8.41 Quantum dots for life science applications. (a) Schematic energy...Figure 8.42 Multiple color labeling by quantum dots. A single 3T3 cell label...Figure 8.43 In vivo imaging using NIR‐II QDs. (a) A time sequence of 1650 nm...Figure 8.44 Using bioluminescence to excite quantum dots in vivo. (a) Polyme...Figure 8.45 Delivery system for mRNA Covid 19 vaccine. The delivery system f...Figure 8.46 Mechanisms of toxicity of Ag nanoparticles to bacterial cells. T...Figure 8.47 Antiviral mechanisms of Ag nanoparticles. (a) Ag nanoparticles i...

10 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Kinesin transport along microtubule. (a) Generic kinesin structur...Figure 9.3 Random motion of crowd‐surfing tubules on a kinesin covered surfa...Figure 9.4 Producing kinesin channels by UV lithography. (a) Glass substrate...Figure 9.5 Directional control over the motion of microtubules on kinesin. T...Figure 9.6 Detection of microtubule rotation while gliding on kinesin. (a) E...Figure 9.7 Cargo‐carrying capacity of microtubule. (a) Microtubule and...Figure 9.8 Exploiting the rotation of microtubules. Possible scheme to explo...Figure 9.9 Unidirectional DNA walker. The track (light green) is composed of...Figure 9.10 Creating nanostructures using DNA origami. (a) Basic scheme of D...Figure 9.11 DNA origami track to control the movement of molecular spider. (...Figure 9.12 Movement of molecular spiders after release. (a) Sequence of AFM...Figure 9.13 DNA walker assembly line. The assembly line incorporates DNA wal...Figure 9.14 Flagellum and motor of a Gram‐negative bacterium. The flag...Figure 9.15 Using bacteria to propel polystyrene microspheres. (a) SEM (scan...Figure 9.16 Micro‐biorobot driven by a sperm cell. (a) Optical image o...Figure 9.17 Smallest feasible medical microbot with current technology. (a) ...Figure 9.18 Protein assembly by ribosomes. (a) A section of RNA in which a s...

11 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Classical and quantum view of the void. (a) In classical physics...Figure 10.2 Quantum piano. (a) The electromagnetic field can be represented ...Figure 10.3 The Casimir force. Two reflectors in empty space restrict the al...Figure 10.4 The Casimir force in the plate‐plate and sphere–plate geometry....Figure 10.5 AFM Measurement of the Casimir force. The method for measuring t...Figure 10.6 High precision measurement of the Casimir Force by noncontact AF...Figure 10.7 MEMS devices. Microelectromechanical systems produced by top–dow...Figure 10.8 Modifying the frequency of a MEMS oscillator using the Casimir f...Figure 10.9 Lateral Casimir force. (a) Demonstration of the lateral Casimir ...Figure 10.10 Noncontact rack and pinion. The lateral Casimir force can be us...Figure 10.11 Casimir ratchet. Using racks in which one has asymmetric teeth,...Figure 10.12 Micro‐machined device to study the Casimir force in a complex g...Figure 10.13 Casimir force in phase‐change materials. (a) The force gr...Figure 10.14 Repulsive Casimir force. (a) Schematic of the system used to me...