Читать книгу 1000 Monuments of Genius - Christopher E.M. Pearson - Страница 11

Over millennia the indigenous peoples of Australia and the South Sea islands developed timeless building traditions suited to local ecological conditions that nevertheless did not match Western expectations of what formal architecture should look like; their cultural productions were largely ignored by the first Western colonists. The first Western-style monumental architecture in Australia, dating from the early 19th century, evinced a late version of English Georgian Classicism when it aspired to formal elegance. Much building was necessarily utilitarian in character, though military and penal constructions could nevertheless assume a severe grandeur, and ornamental ironwork, as applied to balconies, came to characterise more upscale domestic architecture. Fuelled by the wealth generated by the Gold Rush, Australian cities soon came to display impressive examples of High Victorian-style architecture based on contemporary British modes and models. Foreign influence remained decisive through much of the 20th century, whether in the new capital city of Canberra (designed by Walter Burley Griffin, a onetime partner of Frank Lloyd Wright), or the famous Sydney Opera House (by the Danish architect Jørn Utzon, finished by others). Of native Australian architects, the late Harry Seidler remains the most prominent, though the buildings of Glenn Murcutt have recently aroused global interest among architectural professionals for their sensitive response to site and climate.

84. Mahabodi Temple, Bodh Gaya, Bihar, 250 BCE with later reconstructions (India)

85. Ruins at Mohenhjo-Daro, Mohenjo-Daro, c. 2600–1900 BCE (Pakistan)

86. Stupa III, Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, begun in the 3rd century BCE (India)

The Buddhist stupa typology evolved from domical earth mounds over the tombs of holy men, which were the focus of pilgrimages. Its form was standardised by the emperor Asoka, the first Indian ruler to be converted to Buddhism. The domical form of the building is often said to represent the vault of heaven. As here, a balustraded fence (harmika) typically encloses the stupa, symbolising the enclosed garden where the Buddha achieved enlightenment. This is further referenced by the stylised bodhi tree (a three-tiered, umbrella-like motif known as a chatra) on top of the mound, which at the same time emphasises the symbolic role of the stupa as an axis mundi, or vertical route of ascension to the heavenly realm. Four doorways, aligned roughly to the cardinal directions, represent the four winds. Monumental gateways, or toranas, covered with low-relief carvings of Buddhist imagery, provide access points. A short stairway on the south side leads to the circular walkway used by circumambulating priests. Like many other stupas, this important early example was attached to a monastery, of which only vestiges now remain.

87. Ajanta caves, Maharashtra, 2nd century BCE and later (India)

88. Chaitya Hall, Karli, Maharashtra, c. 150 BCE (India)

89. Ise shrine, Uji-Yamada, early 1st century CE with later periodic rebuildings (Japan)

Part of a larger complex with housing for pilgrims and priests, the Ise shrine is a major focus of Shinto worship in Japan. The inner shrine, dedicated to the sun goddess, is situated some kilometres from the outer shrine, which is dedicated to the goddess of agriculture and the earth. Built on a domestic scale, the inner shrine is regularly duplicated every 20 years on an immediately adjacent site in order to maintain it in a state of perfect preservation and cleanliness; the older building is then demolished. The central post of each reincarnation, however, is always retained in situ to provide a sense of continuity. The present building manifests forms and building techniques dating from the 7th century and earlier, thus preserving many archaic forms of timber construction that would otherwise have disappeared, notably the crossed wooden members (chigi) of the gable ends and the stubby wooden billets (katsuogi) ranged along the roof ridge. Its form in fact seems to derive from early designs for raised granaries. Reflecting Shinto views on ritual purity, visitors are not allowed near the innermost precinct, where priests prepare a daily offering of food for the deity.

90. Mỹ Sơn, Quãng Nam province, 4th-13th century (Vietnam)

91. Yungang caves, Datong, late 5th century (China)

92. Kailasa Temple, Ellora, Maharashtra, 750 (India)

93. Horyu-ji temple complex, Nara Prefecture, 7th century (Japan)

Horyu-ji is the oldest surviving Buddhist temple in Japan, and one of the oldest extant wooden buildings in the world. This monastic complex dates from near the time of the introduction of Buddhism into Japan in the 6th century. It was built by Shotoku Taishi, an early convert to the new religion. All the buildings are contained within an enclosed courtyard, though the colonnaded outer walls were added some time later. The plan, while essentially regular, evidences a subtle asymmetry in the placement and size of the buildings, giving a living, dynamic quality to the composition. The trabeated mode of building, upward curve of the roof eaves and complex system of bracketing are all essentially Chinese in origin. Typical of many later Buddhist temples in Japan, Horyu-ji features a multi-tiered pagoda housing symbolic relics of the Buddha, a monumental gateway, a lecture hall (kodo) and an image hall (kondo). A single wooden post serves as the ‘heart’ of the pagoda, rising from the floor to the uppermost finial, while its elegantly flared eaves are supported on ‘cloud-pattern’ bracketing.

94. Great Wild Goose Pagoda, Ci’en Temple, Xi’an, Shanxi Province, 652 with later rebuildings (China)

The Chinese pagoda typology visibly derives from that of the Indian stupa, and it remains one of the chief vehicles of Buddhist ritual throughout the Far East. One of the most ancient of such structures surviving in China, the Great Wild Goose Pagoda was erected during the Tang Dynasty as part of a monastery. It originally had five stories and was about 54 metres tall. This early version, built of rammed earth with a stone facing, collapsed within a few decades, but was rebuilt in 704. The second version, in brick, was damaged by a huge earthquake in 1556, which removed three of its ten stories, leaving it with the current seven. Now 64 metres tall, the pagoda was completely renovated in the Ming Dynasty and again in 1964. The exterior is simple and blocky in appearance, the sheer brick façades relieved only by decorative banding between levels and an articulation of shallow pilasters and small arched openings. The pagoda contains sutras and statuettes of the Buddha brought to China from India. It is related to the Small Wild Goose Pagoda, also in Xi’an.

95. Pancha Ratha (The Five Ratha), Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, c. mid-7th century (India)

96. Cave-temples at Longmen, Luoyang City, Henan Province, 672–675 (China)

97. Elephanta Island, also known as Gharapuri Island, Mumbai harbour, Maharashtra, 9th century and later (India)

98. Daibutsuden (Great Buddha Hall), Todai-ji, Nara, 738 with later rebuildings (Japan)

99. Great Kyz Kala, Merv, 651 (Turkmenistan)

100. Jotab-dong Pagoda, Gyenongsangbuk-do, 750 (South Korea)

101. Pagoda of Fogong Temple, Yingxian, Shanxi Province, 1056 (China)

102. Somapura Mahavihara, also known as Paharpur, Naogaon, c. 800 and later (Bangladesh)

103. Temple complex at Bagan, Bagan, 10th-13th century (Myanmar)

104. Borobudur, Java, c. 800–850 (Indonesia)

Illustrative of the spread of Buddhism from India to Southeast Asia through the initiative of traveling merchants, the great complex at Borobodur is said to be the largest Buddhist temple in the world. With its roughly square base, the shrine’s plan is symmetrical and oriented to the cardinal directions. There are access stairs at the centre of each side. The construction is of dark volcanic stone, built over a low natural hill to reach a height of 31.5 metres. In profile, the shrine comprises a series of terraces that symbolically represent the stages of enlightenment of a Buddhist pilgrim who moves from ignorance to illumination (nirvana). Visitors would walk for several kilometres around the perimeters of the first four tiers in succession. Along the way they would encounter a continuous sequence of low-relief stone friezes illustrating many aspects of Buddhist iconography. The three concentric circular tiers that crown the complex feature 72 small stupas in the form of perforated, bell-shaped domes, each containing a statue of the Buddha. The pinnacle is occupied by the Great Stupa shrine. Once in a neglected state, the entire site was thoroughly restored from 1972 under the auspices of UNESCO.

105. Yunyan Pagoda, also known as Huqiu Tower, Suzhou, 10th century (China)

106. Prambanan temple compound, Java, 850 with later reconstructions (Indonesia)

107. Tomb of the Samanids, Bukhara, c. 940 (Uzbekistan)

108. Brihadishwara Temple, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, 11th century (India)

109. Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, c. 1050 (India)

110. Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, 1000 (India)

111. Angkor Wat temple complex, Angkor, c. 1120 and later (Cambodia)

One of the largest religious monuments in existence, the temple at Angkor Wat is a source of great national pride – it has appeared on the Cambodian flag since 1863. A great mountain-like assemblage of stone originally dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, its order and layout are comparable to the earlier Great Stupa at Borobodur. Angkor Wat was begun by King Suryavarman II, who was later buried there. When completed, it became the royal shrine of the Khmer dynasty, though it was eventually converted to Buddhist uses. Like Borobodur, the temple is largely sculptural rather than spatial in conception. On their quest to reach the top, dedicated visitors would cover many kilometres in circumambulating the multiple terraces. After being attacked in 1431, the complex was largely abandoned except by a colony of monks. Few Western visitors made their way to Angkor Wat before its existence was advertised by the French naturalist Henri Mouhot, who came across it in 1860. Astonished by its size and grandeur, Mouhot wrote that Angkor Wat rivalled the Temple of Solomon and was greater than any ruin left by the Greek and Roman civilisations. The complex was cleared and partly reconstructed in the 20th century.

112. Ananda Temple, Bagan, 1091–1105 (Myanmar)

113. Ho-odo (Phoenix Hall), Byodo-in temple, Uji, c. 1053 (Japan)

This famous monument of Japanese Buddhism, located just south of Kyoto, exemplifies the otherworldly sect of Pure Land Buddhism that became popular with the Japanese nobility from the 10th century. It was originally constructed by the wealthy Fujiwara clan as part of a rural villa, but was changed to a private temple in 1052 by Fujiwara no Yorimichi. The Phoenix Hall, or Amida Hall, is the only surviving building from this complex. In plan the layout of the Hall is symmetrical, with extensive L-shaped wings in the form of corridors connecting to pavilions on either side; a third corridor extends to the rear. From above, this configuration suggests a bird in flight, an image further echoed in the upward sweep of its eaves. The major external impression of the Ho-odo is of a huge sheltering roof upheld by a complex system of bracketing. The red and gold colourscheme suggests Chinese prototypes. The magnificent interior of the Hall is focused on a large cult image of Amida Buddha in gilded cypress wood, which was created by the famed sculptor Jocho. The inside of the roof displays statues of Chinese phoenixes. Such opulence was intended to suggest the Pure Land paradise of Buddhist teachings.

114. Beisi Pagoda, Suzhou, 1131–1162 (China)

115. Qutb Minar, Delhi, 1190s and later (India)

116. Great South Gate (Nan-daimon) of Todai-ji, Nara, 1199 (Japan)

This huge wooden gateway serves as the entrance to the monastic complex of Todai-ji, or the Eastern Great Temple. One of the most important religious foundations in the old capital city of Nara, Todai-ji was established by the Emperor Shomu in the 8th century as part of his efforts to involve the Japanese people more directly in Buddhist ritual; this was undertaken in the hope that the resultant display of piety would protect the nation from further disaster. The dominant architectural presence at Todai-ji is the Great Buddha Hall, or Daibutsuden, reputedly the largest wooden building in the world; it houses a colossal bronze image of the Buddha that is 16 metres tall. The roof structure of the Great South Gate, exemplary of the ‘Great Buddha style,’ reflects an evident knowledge of contemporary building practises in Song-dynasty China. Its lower roof is supported by eight tiers of cantilevered brackets, and its upper roof by seven. These brackets are inserted directly into the supporting columns, which are linked by tie-beams. Since the gateway has no ceilings, the complexity of the entire roof structure is visible from inside. Like the other remarkable buildings at Todai-ji, the Nan-daimon has been designated a National Treasure of Japan.

117. Ali ibn Ibrahim of Nishapur, Minaret of Jam, Firuzkuh, c. 1195 (Afghanistan)

118. Keshava Temple, Somnathpur, Karnataka, 13th century (India)

119. Wat Buddai Svarya Temple, Ayutthaya, 13th century (Thailand)

120. Swayambhunath Stupa, Kathmandu Valley, c. 1372 (renovations) (Nepal)

121. Ancient city of Pingyao, Shanxi Province, 14th century and later (China)

122. Old Sukhothai city, Sukhothai, 13th-14th century (Thailand)

123. Old town of Lijiang, Lijiang, c. 1200 and later (China)

124. Kinkaku-ji, also known as the Golden Pavilion, Kyoto, 1397 (rebuilt in 1955) (Japan)

125. Mosque city of Bagerhat, Bagerhat, 15th century and later (Bangladesh)

126. Great Mosque, Xi’an, 8th century, 1328–1398 (important renovations) (China)

127. Jongmyo Shrine, Jongmyo, 1394 (South Korea)

128. Forbidden City, Beijing, 1406–1420 (China)

129. Changdeok palace, Seoul, 1405–1412 (South Korea)

130. Imcheonggak Estate buildings, Beopheungdong, Andong, Gyeongsangbukdo, 1515 (South Korea)

131. Temple of Heaven, Beijing, 1406–1420 and later (China)

Part of a complex of Taoist buildings in Beijing, this great walled temple was erected in the early 15th century by the Yongle Emperor, who also built the Forbidden City. As the Son of Heaven, the Emperor of China was expected to make regular and public sacrifices, and through the Ming and Qing dynasties successive rulers made twice yearly visits to the Temple to pray for a good harvest. Such rituals followed a rigid order, and their details remained highly secret. The temple complex consists of three major buildings. The central Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, 38 metres tall, is a three-tiered circular building set on a marble base. Its construction is entirely of wood, using no nails. Opposite, to the south, is the smaller Imperial Vault of Heaven, also built on a circular plan. Even further south, accessed by a long stone causeway, is the Altar of Heaven, a three-level circular platform where the Emperor would pray for favourable weather. The complex manifests an elaborate cosmological symbolism in which the juxtaposition of circles and squares represents the unity of Heaven and Earth. Much augmented in the 16th century, the Temple of Heaven was renovated in the 18th century and again for the 2008 Olympics. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1998.

132. The Khas Mahal, a palace in Agra Fort, Uttar Pradesh, 1573 (India)

133. Isa Khan Niyazi’s tomb, Delhi, 1562–1571 (India)

134. Lahore Fort, Lahore, 1566 (Pakistan)

135. Madrasa of Mir-i Arab, Bukhara, 1535 (Uzbekistan)

136. Friday Mosque at Fatehpur Sikri, Fatehpur Sikri, Uttar Pradesh, c. 1571–1574 (India)

137. White Heron Castle, Himeji, begun in 1333 (Japan)

The great fortress at Himeji is of the most spectacular of all Japanese castles, which differ in many respects from their European counterparts. The earliest structure on this site, erected by the warlord Sadanori Akamatusu, is said to date from 1333. From 1601 this was extensively rebuilt by Ikeda Terumasu. Set on a natural outcrop, the castle dominates the city of Himeji, west of Osaka, which grew up around its base. Set on a tall stone podium and surrounded by a moat, the castle is extremely well defended: any attacker would soon become lost in a labyrinthine system of concentric walls, terraces, passages, ramps and fortified gates, all the while coming under attack from galleries above. In fact, Himeji was never besieged or damaged by hostile action. Like all Japanese castles, the central keep is built of wood, though this was made fireproof by a coating of thick plaster. The interiors are remarkably comfortable and elegant for a military building. It is known as the ‘white heron’ or ‘egret’ castle because its dramatic composition of flared roofs and white gables suggests a bird about to take flight.

138. Panch Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri, Uttar Pradesh c.1570–1585 (India)

139. Golden Temple, Amritsar, Punjab, 1585–1604 (India)

140. Charminar Gate, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, 1591 (India)

141. Katsura Imperial Villa, Kyoto, c. 1616–1660 (Japan)

This sprawling villa was built as a domestically-scaled palace for the Japanese Imperial family. It was intended mainly as a temporary or seasonal retreat for meditation and relaxation, and especially for viewing the natural world at various times of day and in different seasons. The buildings of Katsura offer an exquisitely refined manifestation of the traditional Japanese aesthetic, particularly the rustic sukiye style, as evidenced in the five teahouses on the grounds. Its deliberate restraint, or self-conscious austerity, is characteristic of Zen philosophy. The overall plan of the Katsura complex is irregular and additive, but within each building the floor plan is strictly determined by repetition of the standardised module of the tatami mat. The cedar framing of the palace is left unfinished, allowing an appreciation of the natural qualities of the material as well as its weathering with time and use. The interiors can be transformed through the opening and closing of sliding rice-paper partitions; along with an abundance of terraces and porches, this helps to break down the interior/exterior dichotomy, a characteristic much admired by visiting modern architects like Walter Gropius.

142. Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet, 1645 and later (China)

Rising 300 metres above the valley floor, this immense hilltop palace served as the winter residence of the Dalai Lama until 1959, when the fourteenth reincarnation of the Tibetan spiritual leader was forced to flee to India. Begun under Lozang Gyatso, the fifth Dalai Lama, the Palace also served as a seat of government. Copper was poured into its foundations to assist with earthquake stability. Impressively fortress-like in appearance, the Palace’s thirteen stories are set on a tall base of canted stone walls with an average thickness of 3 metres. The central portion, with its puce colouration and golden roofs, is known as the Red Palace, and is devoted solely to prayer and study. In plan the Palace forms a giant rectangle of 350 by 400 metres. It contains over a thousand richly ornamented rooms that house countless shrines and statues. The Potala Palace is named after a hill on a cape at the southern tip of India, which was seen as the abode of a revered Bodhisattva. It is now a museum, but the flow of visitors is strictly regulated. It was placed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1994.