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Dan Binkley. Forest Ecology
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Forest Ecology. An Evidence‐Based Approach
Preface. How Do We Come to Understand Forests?
How Confident Should You Be?
All Forest Ecology Fits Into a Framework and a Method
A Picture May Be Worth 1000 Words, But a Graph Can Be Worth Even More
The Most Important Points to Understand from Figures B and C Are Not About Precipitation or Temperature
Confidence Bands Around Trends Come in Two Types
The Stories in This Book Have Two Pieces, Told in Three Ways
Forests Are Complex Systems That Are Not Tightly Determined
Acknowledgements
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Forests
Forest Ecology Deals with Individual Trees Across Time
Many Processes Occur in a Tree Every Hour
Tree Physiology Follows Daily Cycles
Trees Must Cope with Seasonal Cycles Through Each Year
Trees Grow and Reproduce at Times Scales of a Century
The Story of Forests Is More than the Sum of the Individual Trees, Because Interactions Are So Strong
The Coweeta Forests Aren't the Same as Two Centuries Ago
Across Dozens of Generations of Trees, Almost Everything Changed at Coweeta
The Futures of the Tree and the Forest Will Depend on Both Gradual, Predictable Changes and Contingent Events
Ecological Afterthoughts: Is a Forest an Organism?
CHAPTER 2 Forest Environments
Climate Influences Where Forest Occur, and How They Grow
Warmer Forests Have More Species of Trees
Chemical and Biological Reactions Go Faster with Increasing Temperature
Temperature is the Balance Point Between Energy Gains and Losses
All Objects Shine; Hot Objects Shine Brightly
Incoming Sunlight Decreases in Winter and at Higher Latitudes
Forests Receive Shortwave Sunlight, and Shine off Longwave Radiation
Temperatures Decline with Increasing Latitude
Temperatures Increase at Lower Elevations
Temperature Variation Over Time, and Across Space, Strongly Influences Forest Ecology
Temperature Strongly Influences Phenology and Growth
Forests Use Very Large Amounts of Water
Water Flows Down Gradients of Potential, Which Sometimes Means Going Up
Wind Shapes Trees and Forests
Events and Interactions Are More Important Than Averages and Single Factors
Fires Depend on Temperature, Water, Winds
Droughts Affect Trees, Beetles, Forest Structure and Fire Intensity
Weather Events Can Matter More than Averages
Ecological Afterthoughts
CHAPTER 3 Evolution and Adaptation in Forests. What's in a Name?
The Core Idea of Evolution Is the Combination of Variation, Failure, and Innovation
Darwin Could Not Explain Why Variations Occurred, or Why They Were Passed on to Offspring
Does Selection Work on Species or on Genes, or Is This Only a Chicken‐and‐Egg Question?
Biology Operates from a Simple Story of DNA to Incredible Complexity of Proteins and Biochemistry
Why Are There Only Two Species of Tulip Poplar, and Why Are They 12 000 km Apart?
Tall Growth Requires Strong Stems
The First Trees from Seeds Were Gymnosperms
Collaboration with Insects Helped Angiosperms Take over the Planet
The Highest Diversity Is in Tropical Rain Forests
Do all Trees Need to Have Trunks?
Some Broadleaved Trees Make Fertilizer Out of Thin Air
What's the Largest Tree in the World?
History Has No Need to Repeat Itself
Critchfield Spruce Melted Away at the End of the Last Ice Age
Ponderosa Pine Went from Obscurity to Prominence in Just a Few Thousand Years
Eastern Hemlock Has Had a Dynamic History of Up and Down
Almost all the Animal Species Are Missing from Temperate and Boreal Forests
Climate, Animals and Fire Interact Across Forest Generations
Modern Forests Are Changing Faster Than Ever, on a Global Scale
Ecological Afterthoughts
CHAPTER 4 Physiology and Life History of Trees
Biological Energy Is About Moving Electrons
Forest Energy Comes from Sunlight; Wood Comes from Thin Air
Why Are Leaves Green?
Leaves Are Not Always Green
Carbon Uptake Is the Second Half of Photosynthesis
Growth Happens After Photosynthesis – Sometimes Long After
Trees Do Not Live by Carbon Alone
Photosynthesis and Growth Depend on Acquisition of Resources
More Leaves Means More Light Capture, up to a Point
One Square‐Meter of Leaves Has a Mass of 50–150 g
Each Square Meter of a Forest has Multiple Layers of Leaves above
Large Trees Depend on Large Roots
Networks of Fine Roots Permeate Soils
Do Roots Take Up Water and Nutrients?
Trees (and Mycorrhizal Fungi) Obtain Nutrients by the Interaction of Mass Flow and Diffusion
Life History Is the Story of Going from Seed to Mature Seed‐Producing Tree
Tree Seeds Range in Mass from Smaller than a Flea to Larger than a Mouse
Why Is the Understory of a Forest a Tough Place for Small Trees to Thrive?
All Good Summers Come to an End
Most Trees Die Young
Reproduction Is the Beginning and the End of Life History Stories
Ecological Afterthoughts: What Benefit Comes from Aspen Having Chlorophyll in Its Bark?
CHAPTER 5 Ecology of Wildlife in Forests
Many Species of Trees Coevolved with Animals as Seed Dispersers
Some Animal Species Specialize in Eating Trees
Livestock Grazing and Browsing has been a Core Part of People’s Livelihoods Through History
Was Aldo Leopold Right About the Kaibab Deer Herd?
Wildlife Population Dynamics Occur Within Complex Ecological Systems
Moose and Wolves Established New Populations on Isle Royale in the Early 1900s
The Cycles of Snowshoe Hares and Lynx Repeat, but They Are Far from Simple
Patterns and Processes of Wildlife Population Dynamic Shift Across Space and Time
Good Ideas Without Good Evidence May Be Unreliable, or Wrong
Strong Evidence Comes from Comparisons of Treatments at the Same Point in Time
Ecological Afterthoughts
CHAPTER 6 Forest Soils, Nutrient Cycling, and Hydrology
Forests Need Soils for Physical Support
Soils Here Are Different from Over There, and Soils Now Are Different from Soils Then
Organic Matter is the Top Feature of Soils
Clay Content Comes in Second to Organic Matter
Soils Breathe
The Variety of Soils Is Parsed into Soil Taxonomic Groups
Soils Differ in Age, Even if Most Don't Have Birthdays
Trees Affect Soils
Decomposition Reverses Photosynthesis and Nutrient Uptake
Almost all Forest Biodiversity Is Found in the Soil
Leonardo da Vinci Couldn't Figure out How Water Got to the Top of Mountains
The Atmosphere Holds Only a Few Days of Precipitation
Forest Water Budgets Begin with Precipitation
Water Use by Forests Can Be Measured Across a Range of Scales
Trees Use Most (or All) of the Water
George Perkins Marsh (and Everyone Else) Was Wrong About the Effect of Forest Cutting on Water
Reliable Generalizations Require Evidence from More than One Case
Nutrients Make Life Possible
Nutrients Come From the Atmosphere and From Rocks
Biogeochemical Cycles Are Complex
Decomposition is the Centerpiece of Nutrient Cycling in Forests
Nutrient Losses Are Chronic and Episodic
Ecological Afterthoughts: Consequences of a Warmer World for Snow, Streams, and Forests
CHAPTER 7 Ecology of Growth of Trees and Forests
Forests Are Small and Large, and Growth Is the Key Process Driving Increases
Growth is Examined in a Variety of Ways
Yield Tables Were an Early Example of Parsing Variation in Forests Across Landscapes
Patterns in Yield Tables Were Explained Based on “Growing Space”
Production Ecology Parses Growth into Ecophysiological Factors Constrained by Mass Balance
Forest Growth Is a Function of Resources in the Environment, Resources Acquired, and Efficiency of Resource Use
The Growth of a Forest is the Sum of the Growth of All the Trees
Large Trees Usually Grow Faster than Small Trees in the Same Forest
Dense Forests Have the Highest Growth Rates
Forest Growth Peaks at a Young Age and Then Declines, but Not the Growth of the Biggest Trees in the Forest
Forest Growth Changes over Time, Not Just with Age
Neighbors Influence the Growth of Trees
How Might a Mixed‐Species Forest Grow Faster than a Single‐Species Forest?
Mixed‐Species Forests Usually Cannot Match the Growth of Fast‐Growing Monocultures
When a Species Increases Resource Supplies, Mixtures May (or May Not) Outperform Single‐Species Forests
The Growth of Mixed‐Species Forests Changes over Time
Mixed‐Species Forests Are not Only About Growth Interactions Between Species
Understory Vegetation is Important in Most Forests
Mortality Gets the Final Word on Forest Production
Death is Not the End of the Story for Trees
Ecological Afterthoughts: Is it Better to Remove Small Trees or Large Trees When Thinning a Forest?
CHAPTER 8 Forests Across Space. The Three Most Important Things for a Tree Are Location, Location, and Location
How Small Can a Forest Be?
Forests May Be Divided Into Stands, But Not All Forests Are Structured As Distinct Stands
People Engage with Forests by Defining Areas of Interest
Larger Plots Contain More Species
Vegetation Differs Between Locations
Space Has Another Dimension for Animals
Differences in Forests Usually Increase with Distance, But Not Always
Location Matters Both Locally and Regionally
Resource Use Varies Across Landscape Gradients
Mind the Gap: Spatial Patterns of Trees Within Forests Modify Resource Supplies
The Ecology of Gaps is Not Binary
The Ecology of Gaps and Edges Affects Animals, and Is Shaped by Animals
The Location of Each Tree Allows a Wide Range of Assessments of Forest Structure and Processes
Forest‐Level Information Can Be Dissected Down to the Level of Individual Trees
Riparian Forests Are Special and Important, for Different Reasons in Different Forests
Spatial Patterns Are Important, Even in the Most Uniform Forests
Forest Classification Is Different in the Twenty‐First Century
Ecological Afterthoughts: When It's Not About the Trees
CHAPTER 9 Forests Through Time
Sometimes a Classic Story Comes True
Long‐Term Experimental Forests Provide Knowledge at the Scale of Tree Lifetimes
When Recorded History Is Not Enough, Tree Rings Can Provide a Record of Both Age and Size
Dendrochronology Developed Because There Are No Canals on Mars
Dendrochronology Can Explain Past Forest Structure and Dynamics
Darwin's Ideas Contributed Very Little to Early Ideas of Forest Change (Unfortunately)
Chronosequences Are a Shortcut to the Future, But They May Be Unreliable
Strong Chronosequences Require Large Numbers of Replicates
Growth Always Declines in Old Forests
People Change How Forests Change Over Time
Time Scales of Forests and Human Planning Do Not Always Match
Over the Long‐Term, Forests Have Not Changed As Predicted
Ecological Afterthoughts
CHAPTER 10 Events in Forests: Wind, Insects and Diseases
It's Remarkable That Trees Can Stand Up to Strong Winds
Tree Stems May Break or Uproot
Storms Blow in with a Wide Range of Wind Speeds
Storm Impacts Can Be Severe in Local Areas
Storms that Are Severe Enough to Be Named Are Strong Enough to Topple Vast Numbers of Trees
How Large an Area Can Be Covered by a Single Storm?
How Massive Can a Storm's Impact Be?
When Will the Next Storm Come?
The Next Storm Will Be Different Than the Last One
Trees Provide the Dominant Structure of Forests, But Small Insects Can Play a Very Major Role
How Do Tiny Insects Manage to Kill Large Trees?
Which Trees Are Most Vulnerable to Mountain Pine Beetles?
Which Forests Are Most Susceptible to Mountain Pine Beetles?
Mountain Pine Beetle Impacts Are Consistent When Scaled Up to Regional Areas
Tree Death Alters Environmental Conditions at Local Scales, But Less at Watershed Scales
Why Don't Beetles Kill More Trees?
Is This a Healthy Forest?
Forests Often Thrive When Insects Kill Trees
Should Forests with Lots of Beetle‐Killed Trees Be Logged?
Other Dynamics of Forests and Beetles Occurred Across the Region Too
Other Forests and Other Insects Have Other Stories
Tree Diseases Are Reshaping Forests in a Globalized World
Major Events May, or May Not, Influence the Probability of Other Major Events
Events in Combinations Can Have Drastically Different Legacies
Ecological Afterthought: The Ecology of Avalanches
CHAPTER 11 Events in Forests: Fire. Forest Growth Sets the Stage for Rapid Return to Chemical Equilibrium
Thick Bark Protects Cambium from Heat
The Post‐Fire Forest May Be Dominated by Resprouting Vegetation
Post‐Fire Environments Can Be Good for Seedling Establishment
The Spatial Scale of Forest Fires is Important, But Not Simple
Most Forest Fires Are Small, Though the Uncommon Large Fires Have Great Impacts
Fires Burn Differently at Different Places
Periods of Gradual Change Are Punctuated by the Large Changes from Fire Events
Typical Fire‐Free Periods Within Forest Types Vary Across Sites and Over Centuries
When Fire‐Free Intervals Get Longer, Forests Get Denser
The Spatial Aspects of Fires Also Include Patterns Within Burned Patches
Fire Ecology Might, or Might Not, Be Described with Fire Regimes
Fires Change Soils
Fires Generate Erosion in Areas That Burn, with Sediment Deposition Downslope
Erosion After Fire is Usually Not a Problem, But Sometimes It's Very Severe
Each Species of Animal Has a Different Response to Forest Fires
Fires Interact with Other Major Events in Forests
Ecological Afterthoughts: How Do Slow Changes in Forests Shape the Effects of Fires?
CHAPTER 12 Events in Forests: Management
Harvesting Is the Third Largest Forest Event Across the Planet
Few Forests Are Plantations, But Plantations Provide Most of Our Wood
Deforestation Can Be Tallied from Government Reports, or from Satellites
Human Influences on Forests Have a Spectrum from Low to Very High
Tree Farms Are All About Production, Not Broader Ecological Features
How Sustainable Are Tree Farms?
Managed Forests Come in a Variety of Systems
Rotational Forests Have Birthdays
Understories and Overstories Interact Through a Rotation
Continuous Cover Forests Have no Birthdays, and Less Change
Tree Growth Is Faster in Rotational Forestry than in Continuous Cover Forestry
Management of Unmanaged Forests May Seem Like an Oxymoron
How Does Retaining Trees Influence the Next Forest After Logging in Unmanaged Forests?
Harvesting Is the End of the Line for Some Trees and Forests, and the Beginning of the Next Forest
Harvesting Is Not the Only Big Event that Happens in Managed Forests
Can Forests Remove Enough CO2 from the Atmosphere to Save the Planet?
Ecological Afterthoughts: What's Next for These Forests?
CHAPTER 13 Conservation, Sustainability and Restoration of Forests
Conservation, Sustainability and Restoration Build Values, Ethics, and Esthetics onto a Foundation of Forest Ecology
Conservation, Sustainability and Restoration Are About the Future
Why Do Species Go Extinct, and How Can This Be Prevented?
Conserving Old Forests Is Important, but Old Forests Do Not Last Forever
Conservation and Sustainability Have Similarities
Restoration Comes into Play When Conservation and Sustainability Have Not Been Achieved
The History of a Forest Might Be Read in Reports, in Photographs, in Trees and Remnants of Trees
Clues to the Past Structure of Forests Lurks in Tree Rings, Stumps, and Logs
What Does It Take to Restore a Forest?
Many Forests Have Reestablished Following Agricultural Land Use
Forest Reestablishment May Be Faster with Planting, and Contain More Desirable Species
Forest Reestablishment Leads to the Redevelopment of Forest Soils
Reestablishing Forests in the Absence of Soils Is a Major Challenge, Requiring Insights and Money
Management Can Shift Forests Away from Undesirable Conditions
Two Key Ideas Connect Forest Ecology with Conservation, Sustainability, and Restoration
Ecological Afterthoughts: Restoring Forests May Be About Restoring Non‐Tree Vegetation
CHAPTER 14 Forests of the Future
Forests Have Already Changed, and Continue to Change
Can Invasions Be Predicted?
Some Forests Are More Invasible Than Others
Not all Invasive Species Are Alike: Identity Matters
Plantations of Non‐Native Trees Can Lead to Invasions
Biological Control May Help Limit Invasive Species
Genetics Matter
The Future Is Certain to Be Warmer, with More CO2 in the Atmosphere
If Droughts Increase, Which Forests and Trees Will Show Increased Mortality?
Changing Climates Will Change the Distribution of Species
Fires Have Always Been Important in Forests, and Fires May Become More Important
People Will Contribute to Shaping Future Forests
All These Factors Will Interact to Shape the Dynamics of Future Forests
Rocket Science Can Get You to the Moon, but Pocket Science Leads to Better Outcomes in Forests
The Core Framework Actually Needs a Fourth Question
Ecological Afterthoughts: Growing Meaning in Forests
References
Index. A
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