Читать книгу The Irish Who Fought for Mexico - Daniel Grimes - Страница 4

During the 1840s, large numbers of Americans were migrating westward. Many came to believe that it was “Manifest Destiny” for the United States to expand from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Much of this coveted land belonged to Mexico or to Indian tribes. Although Texas had fought a war with Mexico in 1836 and had prevailed, Mexico still considered Texas to be part of its country. In 1844 James Polk became president of the United States; he was determined to bring Texas into the Union. In 1845 Texas officially gained statehood despite warnings from Mexico that an American annexation would mean war between the two nations. The Mexican government did cut diplomatic relations with the United States but stopped short of declaring war.

There were many issues that caused friction between Mexico and the United States. Mexico recognized the Nueces River as its boundary with Texas. Polk, however, insisted that the actual boundary was the Rio Grande, a river about 150 miles farther south. As long as American troops did not march south of the Nueces River, Mexico would not go to war against them. At the same time, the United States demanded three million dollars in compensation for the Americans killed and property lost as the result of revolutions in Mexico. In addition, Polk wanted to settle California. It belonged to Mexico, but an unstable Mexican government had not been successful at settling and developing California. When American pioneers arrived, they had heated disputes with the small Mexican population.

At this time, tensions were flaring between Protestants and Catholics in parts of the United States. Protestant fervor had been making a revival in American cities, particularly in Philadelphia. There was an increased level of anti-Catholic incitement directed mainly against the Irish and, to a lesser extent, against German Catholics. Followers of the Protestant Nativist Movement, which had increased its membership during this period, considered Anglo-Saxon Protestants the true Americans. They believed that the Irish were loyal to the Pope rather than to the United States and could not be assimilated into American society. Verbal and physical confrontations between Protestants and Catholics became common. In May and July of 1844, a series of anti-Catholic riots swept Irish neighborhoods in Philadelphia. These became variously known as the Philadelphia Bible Riots, Philadelphia Prayer Riots, or Native American Riots. As large mobs of Protestants converged on Irish neighborhoods, many Irish rallied to defend their turf. The mobs became further inflamed and destroyed houses, places of business, and Catholic churches, while the local police turned a blind eye. Gunfire rang out, leaving dozens of people dead and many more wounded. It took thousands of local militiamen to finally put down the riots, which Catholics were blamed for provoking. Many Irish lost their livelihoods and were reduced to poverty and homelessness as a result of the violence. More anti-Catholic incidents occurred in other parts of the United States on a smaller scale. These events convinced many Irish that their Protestant neighbors were antagonistic toward them, resulting in an increased sense of Irish pride and affinity for fellow Catholics.

News of these anti-Catholic riots reached Mexico, reinforcing the belief of many Mexicans that the United States was hostile not only toward their country but toward Catholics in general. Sensing that war was inevitable with the United States, Mexico would use these incidents in an attempt to persuade the Catholic soldiers in the American army to defect to the Mexican side even before the war began.

In late 1845, Polk instructed his representative, John Slidell, to go to Mexico and attempt to purchase California and the area that would later be known as New Mexico for twenty-five million dollars. Slidell was also authorized to declare the American compensation claims void if Mexico would accept the Rio Grande as the boundary line for Texas. However, Mexican officials would not even meet with him. Slidell returned to the United States humiliated and said to Polk that Mexico should be “chastised.”

During this period, another revolution was brewing in Mexico, but leaders from both ends of the political spectrum did not want to appear weak by appeasing the United States. Polk, wanting to take advantage of the instability of the Mexican government, ordered American General Zachary Taylor, who was posted on the Nueces River with 3,000 troops, to march south of the Rio Grande. Taylor’s army arrived at the Rio Grande in April 1846. There a Mexican army crossed the river to confront the Americans.

On April 25, a Mexican force attacked and routed a smaller detachment of American cavalrymen. Polk, who was already adamant about declaring war against Mexico, now was confident he had sufficient reason to do so when he received word of this battle. The American president angrily accused Mexico of invading American territory and shedding its people’s blood. The United States Congress declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846. In the United States, this war was known at the time as the Mexican War and in Mexico, as the War of North American Intervention, the War of North American Invasion, or the War of Northern Aggression.

Meanwhile, across the Atlantic Ocean, a tragedy known as the Great Famine was devastating Ireland. Many Irish were completely reliant on potato crops for their food and livelihood. A massive crop failure caused many of the people to die of starvation or disease. A huge number of Irish, mainly from the western part of the country, decided to immigrate—primarily to the United States and Canada. During this period, Ireland lost a quarter or more of its total population. Some Irish died before reaching the ships. Many lost their lives on the voyage to North America due to malnutrition and disease; the mortality rate on the vessels was so high that they became known as “coffin ships.”

After the survivors of the journey landed in the United States, mainly in New York City and Boston, they realized that life would be difficult. The large influx of new immigrants was causing great anxiety for many Americans. In addition to the concern that the Irish practiced a different form of Christianity, a considerable number of Americans worried that the Irish would take many of the available jobs. However, many employers would not hire them. At this time, the war between the United States and Mexico was starting. The American army needed every able-bodied male it could get, even offering enlistment bounties. With the promise of American citizenship as well as badly needed money, many young Irish males with few other prospects enlisted in the army. Sometimes these Irishmen were recruited days after landing in the United States or even sooner.

Once in the army, however, Irish soldiers were bullied, threatened, and sometimes flogged by xenophobic Protestant officers. “Potato heads” was a common insult directed at Irish soldiers. Those Irish who desired to become commissioned officers faced major obstacles unless they became Protestant. Foreign-born Catholics of other nationalities also faced frequent discrimination. Sometimes officers would not allow Catholic soldiers to attend Mass.

One of the common and most painful practices in the army used by rogue officers to discipline foreign soldiers, even for trivial offenses, was “bucking and gagging.” The soldier was ordered to lie on the ground with his feet up to his hamstrings and his wrists tightly bound in front of his legs. The man would then have a gag stuffed in his mouth and tied tightly around the back of his head. The soldier would be forced to endure this torture for a period ranging from hours to even days. [1]

It was said that when some Irish soldiers posted in southern Texas heard the ringing of church bells coming from the other side of the river in Matamoros, Mexico, they felt they were fighting on the wrong side. This feeling was amplified by the brutality they witnessed. Catholic soldiers were appalled when they saw other American troops plundering, destroying Catholic churches, and violating Mexican women. In one particular incident, General Taylor’s army marched into the Mexican town of Santa Isabel along the Texas side of the Rio Grande. The inhabitants, having no stomach for a confrontation, fled to the other side of the river. Much of the town and surrounding areas were set on fire; and private property, as well as the customs-house, was taken over by the American troops. Although a few Americans condemned the pillage of Santa Isabel, nobody was punished.