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BASIC ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES

Japanese gardening, like other art forms, is a skill in which the artist, to use a linguistic analogy, employs a grammar to express an idea in tangible form. The basic building blocks (or “words”) of this gardening grammar are elements such as rocks, vegetation, water and stone lanterns; and the syntax (rules for combining basic units into a meaningful expression) are principles governing the use of different shapes, sizes and colors to create a balanced and pleasing composition.

Just as languages have dialects, Japanese gardening is not a uniform body of techniques and practices. The grammar employed depends upon the style of gardening. For example, the designer of a stroll garden has access to the full range of basic elements whereas the designer of a dry landscape garden is much more limited in the vocabulary used. This does not mean that the stroll garden is any more highly developed than the dry landscape garden but it is different in terms of the resulting “feeling tone.” Moreover, like languages, gardening grammars and styles change over time depending partly upon internal trends, such as a trend towards increasing complexity, and partly upon external cultural, social and political factors.

This section explores the grammar of Japanese gardening in preparation for a description of specific gardens in the following section.

Basic Elements

The most important elements are structural features. Rocks are arranged into compositions that represent mountains, waterfalls and rugged seascapes. Contrasts between mountain slopes, meadows and valleys are indicated by different species of trees and shrubs that are pruned, clipped and trained into a variety of shapes. Trees and shrubs also are used to connect and provide transitions between the different scenes in a garden. Soil is piled up to create artificial hills and water is channeled to feed streams, ponds and waterfalls.

Additional structural features are the frames provided by fences and walls as well as the paths and bridges that are used in “entry-style” gardens to guide the visitor along a predetermined course.

A magi-sterial view of the South Pond and its surroundings at Ritsurin Kōen, a large stroll garden in Takamatsu, Shikoku—one of the three most famous stroll gardens in Japan.

Next in terms of importance are more decorative elements such as stone lanterns, water basins, flowers, carp and the occasional boat. The function of such features is to augment and fill out the basic design as well as to provide color and interest.

Some large gardens also include small buildings such as teahouses, pavilions and shrines. Sometimes there is a transitional device between a main building and its garden, such as a deck where one can sit to contemplate the garden rather than wandering through it.

Basic Principles

A basic principle of Japanese gardening is miniaturization in which elements such as rocks and ponds are used to represent large-scale landscapes. Related to miniaturization is the use of various techniques to make spaces appear larger than they really are. One of these techniques is altered perspective. For example, if rocks and trees in the foreground are larger than those in the background, the result is an illusion of distance.

A second technique is miegakure (hide-and-reveal)—arranging the garden in such a way that not everything can be seen at once. For example, in entry-style gardens, vegetation, fences and structures are employed to block long-range views.

A third technique is shakkei (borrowed scenery) in which mountains and buildings such as castles that lie outside the garden are incorporated into the design of the garden.

Another basic principle is asymmetry. In asymmetric forms and compositions, no single element is dominant. If there is a focal point, it should be off-center. For example, rocks and trees usually are arranged into triangular compositions that balance horizontal, vertical and diagonal forces. Another example is to arrange the rooms of the main building such as a villa to which the garden is attached in a diagonal, overlapping pattern, sometimes referred to as “geese in flight.” This staggered arrangement creates interesting garden spaces and helps integrate a building into its natural surroundings.

Not all gardens are designed to be entered. Some are to be viewed from inside a building or from a deck, in which case the entire composition may be seen at once. This requires a different set of principles involving the need to create a balance between structural stability and a type of dynamism in which the eye is enticed to trace an interesting route as it moves from one element to another, thereby drawing the viewer into the creative process.

At the root of all such basic principles is the understanding that a garden is a work of art. Though inspired by nature, it is an interpretation rather than a copy; it should appear to be natural but it is not wild. A primary challenge to the designer is to bring out the intrinsic nature of a landscape scene in such a way that it is beautiful in all seasons of the year.

Basic Themes

Basic elements and principles vary depending upon the type of garden. There are certain themes, however, that are found in many different types of gardens. A large rock, sometimes placed on an islet, often symbolizes Buddhism’s Mount Sumeru or Taoism’s legendary mountain peak of the immortals, known as Mount Hōrai. Another frequently occurring theme is a pair of basic elements such as rocks, islets or trees to represent the tortoise and crane—traditional symbols of longevity. The crane is always the higher of the two elements in the dyad. Other common themes are natural landmarks such as Mount Fuji or famous landscape scenes in China or Japan.

Many of the basic elements of a Japanese garden are shown in this 1735 edition of the gardening manual Tsukiyama Teizōden (Building Mountains and Making Gardens) by Kitamura Enkin.

Landscape Manuals

The basic elements, principles and themes of Japanese landscape gardening were described in early gardening manuals. The first of these was Sakuteiki (Notes on Garden Making). Written in the middle of the Heian Period (794–1185), the Sakuteiki attempted to adapt Chinese gardening principles to Japanese conditions and tastes. Later manuals included the fifteenth-century Senzui Narabi ni Yagyō no Zu (Illustrations for Designing Mountain, Water and Hillside Field Landscapes) and the eighteenth-century Tsukiyama Teizōden (Building Mountains and Making Gardens) (see above). Manuals such as these are still studied today.

ROCKS, SAND AND GRAVEL

Variables to be considered in the selection of rocks, sand and gravel include shape, size, color and texture. Rocks are among the most important structural elements of a garden since they can be used to represent mountains, rugged shorelines and waterfalls. Sand and gravel also are important as they can be raked into patterns that are suggestive of flowing elements such as clouds and streams.

Types of Rocks

Landscape gardens normally use natural rocks found in the mountains, at the seashore or along rivers. These can be classified into three kinds: suisei-gan (sedimentary rocks), kasei-gan (igneous rocks) and hensei-gan (metamorphic rocks). Rocks of the first type are usually smooth and round due to the action of water. They are used on the edges of ponds and as stepping stones. Rocks of the second type are produced by volcanic activity and are usually rough in shape and texture. They are used as stepping stones or to provide a highlight, such as a mountain peak. Because rocks of the third type are very hard, they are normally used around waterfalls and streams. Cut rocks (kiriishi) also have become popular in recent times. Sedimentary rocks are generally used for this purpose since they are relatively soft and easy to handle. Cut rocks are used for bridges, water basins and stone lanterns.

Yin–yang rocks placed along a stream on the outskirts of Yuishinzan Hill at Okayama Kōrakuen (pages 150–3) represent male and female sex organs. Fertility was a favorite theme of Warrior gardens during the Edo Period since the fief was repossessed by the shogun if a daimyō did not pass it on to a son.

SOME BASIC ROCK SHAPES

Rock Selection

When rocks are selected for a garden, it is particularly important to consider shape and size. Rugged mountain peaks require large rocks with sharp, angular planes, whereas weathered hills require the gentler shapes of water-worn rocks. Another consideration is the surface patina of a rock. Some compositions call for rocks covered with moss or lichens, in which case they must be collected and handled with great care. On the other hand, a recently broken rock may be suitable to represent a high mountain peak. Even so, care must be taken to not leave scratches on the surface.

Sometimes rocks are selected because of an interesting or unusual shape or because they resemble animals, birds or human artifacts. This practice has precedents in China where the mountainous dwellings of the immortals often were depicted by unusual rocks or where an entire garden, especially in the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), could consist of an elaborate assemblage of fancifully shaped stones. The Chinese emphasis on selecting rocks for their representational or fanciful qualities has long had an influence on Japanese gardens, as in the boat-shaped rock at Daisenin Temple in the great Zen monastery complex of Daitokuji in Kyoto (page 108), the rocks used to represent heads and tails in the turtle and crane islands common in large stroll gardens, or in the unusual rocks often found in Warrior gardens.

In general, however, Japanese have preferred asymmetrical, natural shapes to representational or fanciful ones, and have placed more emphasis upon the integration of rocks into the composition than upon the uniqueness of individual rocks.

Composition and Placement

Traditionally, rocks were classified according to shape: tall vertical, low vertical, arching, reclining and flat. There also are classifications for the number of rocks in a composition: two, three, five or seven. An arrangement of three rocks is the most common. There are two types of rock triads: one in which three rocks are arranged horizontally to form a triangle when viewed from above (hinbonseki), and one in which three rocks are arranged to form a triangle, with its base resting on the ground, when viewed from the side (sanzonseki). The latter, the vertical triad, probably dates back to the Nara Period when it was known as a Buddha triad, with the large rock in the center representing a Buddha and the two flanking rocks representing Bodhisattva attendants. An entire garden can often be analyzed in terms of the relationship between horizontal and vertical rock triads.

The use of three components, one large, one small and one medium, to create a dynamic balance of odd numbers is not limited to garden architecture but is a basic principle in other arts, such as flower arranging, where the tallest (vertical) element in the arrangement (such as a flower, wild grass or branch) represents heaven; the shortest (diagonal) element represents earth; and the medium-size (horizontal) element represents humanity—the bridge between heaven and earth.

Small rock garden at Ryōgenin, a subtemple of Daitokuji Zen Monastery, Kyoto, which features complementary rocks and raked gravel.

Other Design Considerations

Generally, a rock should be set into the ground far enough to provide a feeling of stability and a sense that the rock has been there for some time. The number and size of rocks included in a garden have a major impact upon the general impression created. As mentioned earlier, Warrior gardens tended to include numerous rocks of large size, suggesting power and authority. In contrast, Zen gardens generally employ few rocks to create a more austere and contemplative environment.

An important design consideration is to select rocks that vary in terms of color, shape and size. Within an individual rock, however, too much variation can be distracting. If strata or veining are evident, they should be oriented in the same direction. The same is true of color. A rock with too many strongly contrasting colors lacks subtlety.

The 2-meter (6.5 foot)-high gravel cone in the dry landscape garden of Ginkakuji (Temple of the Silver Pavilion), Kyoto, is remade every month in order to maintain its original shape.

An interesting design principle introduced at the end of the Edo Period was the seemingly random placement of one or more rocks to provide an element of spontaneity. Such rocks are referred to as suteishi—“discarded” or “nameless” rocks. This “artless” use of rocks nevertheless has to be done skill-fully if it is to achieve the desired effect.

Sand and Gravel

Sand (suna) and gravel (jari) have characterized sacred plots in the forest or on beaches since an-cient times (pages 50–1). Much later, sand from eroded granite was popular in dry landscape (karesansui) gardens because it can be raked into patterns that represent flowing water. By implying movement, sand patterns rely upon the power of suggestion to entice observers to participate in the creative process and to enter into the very fabric of the garden itself. The dynamism of sand patterns also complements the static nature of rocks. To use an organic analogy, if rocks provide the skeleton, sand patterns provide the soft tissue and blood.

Used together, rocks and sand patterns suggest various contrasts important in both continental and Japasnese cosmology, such as the contrast between yin and yang (in and yō in Japanese), or the contrast between the eternal principles of the universe and their constant manifestation in the ongoing processes of nature.

tall vertical and reclining

tall vertical, short vertical and reclining

short vertical and flat

tall vertical, flat and reclining (an example of the basic triad)

tall vertical, arching, short vertical, flat and reclining

SAND AND GRAVEL PATTERNS

In creating sand patterns in dry landscape gardens, the size of the grain is important. If the grain is too small, it is easily disturbed by wind and rain; if the grain is too large, it is difficult to rake. Color is also important. White sand carries connotations of purity and can be dazzling in the sunlight, whereas darker colors, such as gray or brown to bluish black, are said to convey feelings of tranquility. The best white sand comes from the Shirakawa area of Kyoto, where it has been used in gardening for centuries. The Tokyo area produces some of the best colored sands.

Sand is ideal for gardens that are meant only to be viewed but it is not suitable for courtyards in which activities take place, such as those of Buddhist temples or Shinden style mansions. Such courtyards employ larger grained gravel or small pebbles that are more likely to stay in place under the trampling of feet. Some courtyards, such as those at Ise Jingū, which are not normally walked upon, are covered with rounded, water-worn pebbles and small rocks, reminiscent of a river beach.

straight

paving stone

flower (or some other plant)

woven

whirlpool eddy in foreground; straight in back (note how the “straight” lines curve around the rocks)

piled sand

ocean waves

checkerboard (the main difference between the checkerboard and paving stone designs is in the size of the squares)

curves

WALLS, FENCES AND PATHS

Walls and fences are used to enclose a garden, thereby ensuring privacy and keeping out unwanted intruders. They also are frames that allow a garden to be viewed as a work of art, somewhat detached from its surroundings. The importance of paths is that they guide visitors through a garden in such a way that the composition unfolds as intended by the designer.

Walls and Fences

In addition to framing what is on the inside, walls and fences can be used, in conjunction with trees, shrubs and hedges, to frame distant scenes and incorporate them into the garden—an example of “borrowed scenery.” Fences are also used within a garden to screen a view or to encourage visitors to look or move in a particular direction. The choice of whether to use a wall or fence when creating a boundary depends largely on the type of buildings and gardens enclosed as well as on the intended effect. A substantial wall is well suited to the large buildings and grounds of a Buddhist temple whereas a twig fence is more appropriate for Sukiya style mansions and gardens. Walls and fences must, of course, have appropriate gates. For example, a twig fence may be interrupted by a small grass-covered pole gate, whereas a garden surrounded by a substantial clay wall with a tile roof requires a more impressive entrance.

Detail of a wall constructed of ceramic tiles and clay resting on a stone foundation.

A lattice type bamboo fence at Kōetsuji Temple, Kyoto.

Materials and Construction Methods

Walls are generally distinguished by their construction methods. Temples and palaces are enclosed by very substantial walls constructed of a mixture of clay and straw (shikkui) covered with a coat of plaster that is painted white or a pastel color such as tan or beige. Sometimes tiles are embedded in the clay. Clay walls are supported by a timber framework and covered with a tile roof. Sometimes the wall is erected on a stone base. A common type of enclosure for early Shinden style gardens and mansions in the Nara and Heian periods was a substantial wooden wall with a wooden roof. Because such walls were easily damaged by wind and rain, they were mostly abandoned after the Heian Period though board fences continued to be used.

Fencing materials and construction methods vary widely. In addition to the use of boards, some of the most common materials are bundled twigs, bamboo, reeds and bark. Flexible materials such as reeds and split bamboo can be fastened by cords and vines to a sturdy frame constructed of horizontal poles attached to vertical members sunk in the ground. They also can be fastened to each other and hung from a horizontal top pole, or in the case of strips of bark, woven together and attached to the frame. More sturdy materials such as bamboo poles can be widely spaced and interlaced on the diagonal, leaving diamond-shaped spaces between the poles. Twig fences in which the tops are not trimmed are known as “nightingale fences.” These are only a few of the many fence alternatives open to the garden designer.

WING FENCES

Screen or wing fences are short ornamental fences, slightly narrower than tall, that are attached to buildings in order to control the view of the garden from the veranda or to conceal some object in the garden. They are usually made of brushwood (shiba) and split bamboo. Considerable effort is expended to turn wing fences into works of art. The drawings below are based largely upon the drawings of Josiah Condor, an English architect who lived in Japan in the Meiji Period.

double screen type

clotheshorse type

leaning plum tree type

unjō type

low Korean type

two-stage torch type

round window lattice type

nightingale type

tea whisk type

Paths

Paths are generally constructed of beaten earth that can be left plain or covered with sand or fine gravel, on top of which are placed stepping stones. Irregular flat stepping stones were used in tea roji to guide the participant towards the teahouse and to keep his or her feet clean. Later, stepping stones were incorporated into other types of gardens. The most commonly used materials are slate, schist, flint and granite, left as natural slabs or shaped into more regular forms. In most traditional gardens, stepping stones are of different sizes and are arranged in a variety of patterns, with several inches between stones so the bare spaces can easily be cleaned. In other cases, cut rocks can be arranged in a close-fitting geometric pattern to create a type of stone pavement. Most paths serve a practical function but the material and style employed serve an aesthetic function by contributing to the degree of formality desired by the garden designer.

Sturdy stepping stone bridge at Kōrakuen Garden, Okayama.

Earthen path covered with gravel.

Geometric cut stones surrounded by natural pebbles and cut stone border (shin: formal style).

Closely spaced natural pebbles, classified as formal (shin) because of the regular effect achieved by the use of pebbles similar in size and shape.

Informal stepping stones (sō).

Closely spaced natural stones, irregular in size and shape, enclosed by a cut stone border (gyō: semiformal).

PONDS, WATERFALLS AND BRIDGES

Oceans and rivers have always been a major source of sustenance for the Japanese. It is therefore not at all surprising that water played a critical role in Shinto purification ceremonies. This indigenous emphasis upon water was strengthened in the sixth century when continental culture introduced gardens that included ponds, streams and waterfalls. Bridges are used to provide access to islands situated in ponds or to cross streams running through the garden.

Ponds and Streams

Ponds were created in a variety of shapes, sometimes based upon Chinese characters, such as the characters for water, heart or dragon. An important design principle was to avoid geometric forms such as rectangles and circles, except in very small domestic gardens. In a landscape garden, the pond should look natural with an irregular shoreline and different “arms,” sometimes partially separated by narrows. Rocks and polished stones were often used to create a rugged coastline or a pebbly beach.

Whenever possible, ponds were fed by natural streams or springs or by water that was piped in, sometimes from a considerable distance. In Kyoto, where most of Japan’s famous gardens are located, there were numerous springs until the mid-Heian Period. Streams also can be employed in gardens that have no ponds to represent tumbling mountain brooks or rivers flowing through a plain. In the former case, streams are narrow, twisting and rocky. In the latter case, they tend to be broader, straighter and lined with wild grasses and flowers.

Detail of a river emptying into a pond, from the gardening manual Tsukiyama Teizōden (Building Mountains and Making Gardens).

Autumn foliage at Tenryūji, Kyoto, the original “borrowed landscape” garden. The focus of the garden is the pond lying at the base of hills rising to Mount Arashi.

Waterfalls

Waterfalls are used to indicate where water enters a pond, to highlight a scene or to provide a focus. If a natural cascade is not available, an artificial waterfall is created by directing water over a cliff formed by planting rocks on a vertical face cut from a hill. The top is often obscured by vegetation to create the illusion of indeterminate height.

There are several varieties of waterfall. In some, water drops directly from a cliff whereas in others it descends in stages over river rocks. The early gardening manual Sakuteiki lists nine types of waterfalls, a classification system that provided the basis for the following categories still in use today: “right and left-falling” (divided into two cascades), “side-falling” (falling on one side only), “front-falling,” “folding-falling” (falling in a series of falls), “stepped-falling,” “wide-falling” (wide in proportion to its height), “heaven-falling” (falling from a great height), “thread-falling” (falling in thin lines), and “linen-falling” (falling in thin sheets).

Garyūkyō stepping stones in the Dragon Pond at Heian Shrine, salvaged from the supporting pillars of the Sanjō and Gojō bridges in Kyoto. The interconnected ponds in the garden are graced by lavish plantings of flowers, trees and water plants.

The 7-meter (23-foot)-high Midoritaki waterfall on the north edge of Hisago Pond at Kenrokuen was created in 1774 by the eleventh Maeda lord Harunaka, who held a large tea party to mark the completion of the waterfall. By this time, rock formations associated with waterfalls seem to have lost the religious symbolism they had in earlier gardens, such as Tenryūji.

BRIDGES

Like walls and fences, bridges are almost endless in their variety of shapes, materials and means of construction. The main variables for common types of bridges are as follows:

Shape: arched (soribashi) or flat (hirabashi)

Alignment: straight, staggered or zigzag

Materials: stones or logs covered with organic materials such as bark and sod

Construction: suspended with a center support, suspended with no center support, wood or stone slabs resting on multiple supports, or stepping stones planted directly in the pond or stream bed

Character: refined or rustic

Arched bridges (soribashi) can be either painted red or left unpainted. When a log bridge is covered with cedar bark and dirt, upon which moss or grass is encouraged to grow, it is referred to as a dobashi. Stone bridges (ishibashi) employ either natural or cut rocks and are generally used to cross streams running into ponds. Covered bridges with benches, seldom seen in gardens today, are called rōkyō or kurehashi. Rustic slab or stepping stone bridges are suitable for Tea and Sukiya style gardens whereas ornate wooden or cut stone bridges help create a more formal atmosphere.

arustic arched bridge made of logs covered with mud and grass

brefined arched bridge made of cut stone

cflat single-slab stone bridge with no center support

dflat two-slab stone bridge with center support

earched single-slab stone bridge with no center support

fflat wooden bracket bridge

gflat wooden bridge with staggered planks supported on pillars sunk in the stream or pond bed

hflat wooden bridge with a zigzag pattern

istepping stones sunk directly in the stream or pond bed

DECORATIVE ELEMENTS

In contrast to structural elements such as stones, trees and ponds, decorative elements or artifacts add a human touch to a natural scene. Some also have practical uses. For example, lanterns light the pathways in gardens and water basins are used for purification prior to a tea ceremony. Artifacts such as Buddhist statues and miniature pagodas normally have sacred connotations but in a garden context they are used purely for decoration.

The famous two-legged stone lantern at Kenrokuen Garden, Kanazawa, is called Kotoji because its shape resembles the bridge that supports the strings of a koto, a classical musical instrument.

Lanterns

It is said that Sen-no-Rikyū, the great Momoyama Period tea master, became intrigued by the hanging bronze Buddhist votive lamps in a cemetery on the outskirts of Kyoto and decided to use lanterns to provide illumination for evening tea ceremonies. Though the early garden lanterns were bronze, eventually stone and wood came into use. Lanterns were placed by the gate; along paths, ponds or streams; near a bridge or water basin; by a waiting arbor; or next to the entrance of the teahouse. It was not considered tasteful, however, to use lanterns in all of these locations. As in most things connected with the tea ceremony, understatement was the key. Other design principles include planting a tree beside a lantern so that one branch hangs over the top or front. Also, stone lanterns often are included in a rock composition in which the lantern is flanked by two or three stones of lesser height.

Two basic types of stone lantern are those made of natural stones that are reworked just enough so that they can be stacked, with a lamp housing in the center, and those made of cut stone such as granite. The former are used when a rustic touch is desired, as in a tea roji, whereas the latter are suitable for more conventional gardens. A more elaborate classification system divides stone lanterns into four types: pedestal lanterns in which the shaft rests on a base (tachigata); buried lanterns in which the shaft is sunk into the ground and thus does not require a base (ikekomigata); snow scene lanterns that have legs instead of a shaft as well as a large, relatively flat roof to catch and hold snow (yukimigata); and small “set” lanterns that are used where space is limited or where their function is to provide illumination without attracting attention (okigata).

Within each type there is a great deal of variation since designers have always had considerable leeway in selecting and combining potential design elements. Some designs are named after a Buddhist temple or shrine where the design originated whereas others are named after tea masters who created them for their own gardens. Over time, new designs have been invented, some of which are unique and found only in a single garden.

Contrast between a cut stone lantern and one that, except for the housing, is made of natural rocks. The housing, in which a candle or an oil lamp traditionally was placed, is usually made of stone. In this natural stone lantern at Sanzenin Temple, however, the housing is made of wood.

Pagodas

Evolved from the Indian stupa, pagodas commemorate the death of the historical Buddha, Shakamuni. When constructed on the grounds of Buddhist temples, they generally are large wooden buildings with an uneven number of floors. Garden pagodas, however, are smaller stone structures that have a purely decorative function. They are often placed along streams and ponds so their images can be reflected in the water or erected on artificial hills to provide a focal point.

Statues

Like votive lamps and pagodas, Buddhist statues normally have religious functions and meanings. Used in a secular garden, such statues may be the object of a certain amount of reverence but their function is basically decorative. While statues in the gardens of Buddhist temples are often made of bronze, stone statues tend to predominate in secular gardens.

A few examples of the many types of stone lanterns:

anigatsudō style pedestal type

bplanet style pedestal type (rustic)

cplanet style buried shaft type

dmile post style buried shaft type

eoribe style buried shaft type (rustic)

fthree-legged style snow scene type

gfour-legged style snow scene type

h–j three styles of small “set” type

Water Basins

Water pitchers originally used by tea guests to purify their hands prior to a tea ceremony developed into water basins (tsukubai). They are usually made of stone but can be of other materials such as bronze. Water is introduced to the basin through a bamboo pipe (kakei). Though most commonly found in tea gardens, water basins are also used in other types of gardens where they provide a subtle visual touch by reflecting the sky or nearby vegetation. The main difference between the basins found in tea gardens and those in other gardens is that the former are placed close to the ground (tsukubai means “crouching basin”) on a partially buried stone rather than on a pedestal.

Shishi Odoshi

A shishi odoshi consists of a length of bamboo centered over a pivot, with the closed end of the bamboo resting on a stone and the other (open) end tipped up. A pipe feeds water into the open end until the bamboo is heavy enough to drop, releasing its contents onto a graveled patch of ground, basin or stream. The bamboo then returns to its original position, hitting the stone with a “thunk.” The movement and sound of this device, usually called a “deer scare,” originally were used by farmers to frighten away deer and wild boar. The shishi odoshi emphasizes the importance of appealing to all five senses when designing a garden.

Water basin with a ladle resting on bamboo supports, fed by water through a bamboo pipe.

Decorative water basin with an unusual floral shape.

Tea garden water basin set close to the ground.

Millstone transformed into a water basin.

Stone water basin surrounded by multi-level greenery.

Bamboo reflected in a cut stone water basin.

ISLANDS, HILLS AND PAVILIONS

When we think of Japanese gardens, images of mountains and flowing rivers come to mind. Japanese gardens, however, also contain more passive and quiet elements. For example, islands and gently sloping hills provide contrast and balance, just as yin complements yang. A variety of structures, such as pavilions and teahouses, have their own role to play in terms of providing places to rest, to enjoy refreshments and to view the surroundings.

Islands

There is an elaborate classification system for islands based upon shape or special features, such as “mountain isles,” “forest isles,” “bare-beach isles” and “cloud-shaped isles.” In addition to helping create different kinds of landscapes, islands can have more specialized functions such as preventing the pond from being seen as a whole—an example of the “hide-and-reveal” technique discussed elsewhere in the book.

Suizenji Garden in Kumamoto, one of the most beautiful stroll gardens in Japan, is noted for its grass-covered hills, such as the ones shown here, as well as a miniaturized Mount Fuji shown to the left of the photo on pages 138–9.

Japanese black pine (Pinus thunbergii) on islets of the pond at Kinkakuji (Temple of the Golden Pavilion), Kyoto.

Islands often have symbolic meanings and sacred functions. For example, islands are used to represent the mountainous “isles of bliss” where the immortals live (hōrai islands associated with Taoism, or the crane and turtle islands so ubiquitous in stroll gardens); the sea-enclosed mountain at the center of the universe (Mount Sumeru, or Shumisen, in Sanskrit and Buddhist thought); or Nakajima (“island in the center”) representing the Western Paradise of Pure Land Buddhism. Since these sacred islands were located in a pond representing the sea, they normally were not connected to land by a bridge but had to be reached by boat.

In contrast to ponds representing sacred isles in the sea, ponds can also represent lakes used for recreational purposes as in the Shinden style gardens of aristocrats in the Nara and Heian periods. Such ponds usually have two or more islands connected to each other and to the rest of the garden by bridges.

Islands vary considerably in size depending upon their role in the overall composition as well as the size of the pond. Some islands are large enough to contain a hill (see below) and to be planted with trees whereas other islands may consist of only one or two rocks.

South Pond, Kikugetsutei tea-house, Engetsukyō Bridge and the borrowed scenery of Mount Shiun viewed from the top of Hiraihō Hill at Ritsurin Kōen, Takamatsu. The dark green reflection of the pine trees gives the South Pond a feeling of yūgen—a profound, mysterious sense of the beauty of the universe.

Hills and Flatlands

Japanese gardens are most famous for their depiction of rugged mountain scenery complete with rocky streams and dramatic waterfalls. Sometimes, however, a more gentle landscape is achieved through the use of flowing hills interspersed with lowlands. Hills can be covered with grass or planted with pine trees. They are frequently constructed on islands to provide a contrast to the flatness of the surrounding pond or to block a view of part of the pond. Hills also offer elevated spots for viewing the rest of the garden or as a location for a pavilion. A particularly interesting device, sometimes used in karesansui gardens, is to use trimmed bushes to create abstract shapes suggestive of hills.

Flatlands include plains, fields or marshes where the beauty of grasses and water plants is emphasized. The use of flatlands is particularly prominent in large stroll gardens such as Shūgakuin Detached Palace near Kyoto.

Kōrakuen Garden in Okayama, one of the three most famous stroll gardens in Japan, notable for its grassy expanses.

Pavilions and Other Structures

Garden structures include pavilions, teahouses, privies and small ornamental features such as water wheels. Pavilions are most commonly found in tea ceremony and large stroll gardens. In tea roji, they are used as places to sit while waiting for the tea master to summon guests to the tea ceremony. In stroll gardens, they are used as resting places. The latter type of pavilion usually has a good view of the surrounding scenery.

Teahouses and associated privies also are most commonly located in tea roji and large stroll gardens. Their function is the same in either location. Teahouses, which can be small and austere or large and comfortable, are the site of formal tea ceremonies. Associated privies were, at one time, used by guests but are today purely ornamental.

Ornamental features such as water wheels, wisteria arbors and wells are found in various types of Japanese gardens where their basic function is to add interest by providing a contrast with the more natural surroundings. The layering of various elements also lends depth to a garden.

Framing Devices

When a garden is adjacent to a main building, verandas and views of the garden from the inside should be considered as well. Verandas are transitional devices between a building and the garden that make the movement of eye and body from indoors to outdoors less abrupt. In contemplation gardens, a veranda is a place to sit and view the garden. It completes the frame provided by walls on the other three sides of the garden. Windows and openings created by sliding doors are frequently used as framing devices through which a garden can be viewed from the inside. The shape of the frame can be used to complement the outdoor scene and amplify the feeling that one is viewing a work of art.

PAVILIONS

Pavilions are structures where one can rest, view the moon or wait for a tea ceremony to begin. Located on hills, islands or on the edges of a pond, they can range from the simplest of shapes, such as an “umbrella roof” on a pole, to elaborate edifices with raised floors and tatami mats.

umbrella type

summer house type

hexagonal type

enclosed type

machiai (covered arbor where one waits for a tea ceremony to begin)

matted type

FLORA AND FAUNA

The first gardens in Japan were graveled plots symbolizing sacred space. In the Heian Period, new traditions from China introduced gardens in which ponds and stone compositions provided the basic structure. Trees, bushes and flowers were also introduced but because plants, compared to rocks, are impermanent, they were regarded as decorative elements. In later periods, trees and shrubs came to be regarded as structural elements, as they are today.

A vertical triangle composed of various kinds of vegetation, with a pine tree at the apex, from the 1735 edition of the gardening manual Tsukiyama Teizōden (Building Mountains and Making Gardens).

Types of Vegetation

Between the Heian and Edo periods, various practices were adopted regarding plant usage. For example, in “wet” landscape gardens, trees and grasses were employed to create shorelines, rolling hills and meadows, whereas in “dry” landscape gardens, vegetation was kept to a minimum so as not to dwarf the mountains and streams represented by rocks and gravel. The most popular plants have always been those indigenous to the area.

Of the many plants available for use, trees are the most important. A tree usually provides the focal point of a composition, with other plants used as accents. Four types of trees are employed in Japanese gardens: broad leaf evergreens, deciduous trees, needle leaf trees and bamboo. Most common broad leaf evergreens include camellia, azalea, Japanese fatsia (yatsude), pasania and oak. Deciduous trees include plum, cherry, maple, willow, gingko and zelkova. Commonly used needle leaf trees include pine, Japanese cypress (hinoki), Japanese cedar or cryptomeria (sugi) and fir. Around fifteen species of bamboo, including bamboo grass, are found in Japan. Pines are particularly important because they are relatively easy to train into interesting shapes. Bamboo is used with caution as it spreads quickly and can rapidly take over a garden.

Like rocks, trees are usually arranged in triangular or pyramidal compositions to create an asymmetrical balance of forces. Different species are normally planted together to provide contrast in form and color. For example, a twisted pine goes well with a weeping willow. Care is taken to plant trees in areas similar to where they would grow in nature. Thus, trees that normally grow on mountain slopes are not planted in flatlands.

Of the many types of bamboo that grow in Japan, some are not suitable as they become too large. The three species shown here are favored because of their relatively small size and attractive stem colors. From left to right:

Phyllostachys aurea Golden Bamboo (Hoteichiku)

Phyllostachys bambusoides “Castillon” Variegated Running Bamboo (Kinmeichiku)

Phyllostachys nigra Black Bamboo (Kurochiku)

Clipped shrubs became common in Momoyama Period karesansui gardens, particularly in conjunction with gravel. Shrubs such as junipers and azaleas are usually trimmed into rounded shapes and are sometimes grouped in clusters to suggest hills. More infrequently they are used to create geometric shapes or artifacts such as boats. Unless this is done with great skill, the result can look artificial. Trees and shrubs are often planted near or overhanging stone objects such as lanterns, wells and basins. This provides an interesting contrast and helps blend human artifacts into the scenery.

Moss is particularly suited to Japan’s humid temperate climate. Over a hundred varieties of moss can be found in Saihōji (Kyoto’s Moss Temple) alone. The use of grass to create lawns began in the early Edo Period and was reinforced in the Meiji Period after the invasion of Western culture. Flowers are generally found in flatland gardens, especially along streams or ponds.

Moss and stone checkerboard pattern in the North Garden of Tōkufuji Temple’s Hōjō Garden, Kyoto, designed by Shigemori Mirei.

Uses of Vegetation

Trees and shrubs contribute to the basic compositional structure of a garden but like other plants they have a variety of uses. For example, trees and shrubs provide shade, disrupt long-range views, screen undesirable elements outside the garden, frame “borrowed scenery” and provide borders to areas selected for emphasis. Vegetation is also used to provide a transition between different scenes in a stroll garden, thereby unifying the composition. Non-flowering trees and shrubs can provide a relatively homogeneous backdrop for compositions such as rock arrangements. Of particular interest is the use of vegetation to aid in the creation of perspective. For example, a feeling of distance can be achieved by placing plants with bright colors or large leaves in the foreground and darkcolored plants with small leaves in the background. Vertical distance can be manipulated in the same manner. For example, a hill can be made to appear higher by planting large trees at the base and smaller trees at the top.

Symbolism and Color

Some species of plants have specific meanings. For example, the lotus, most commonly found in Paradise gardens, though rooted in the mud, grows to the surface of a pond to produce a beautiful flower, giving rise to the hope that humans can rise above the impurities of life to attain enlightenment. This is one of the reasons that Buddha is often depicted as sitting on a lotus blossom.

To take another example, pines are a symbol of endurance. Their shape and color, however, can also be important. A twisted pine suggests a windswept coast whereas a stunted pine connotes a high alpine plateau. Regardless of its shape, the evergreen foliage of a pine tree provides a touch of life to a garden even in the cold winter months and thereby connotes the ability to withstand difficult external conditions.

Fauna

Fauna are an important and often overlooked part of Japanese gardens. Fish eat algae and other vegetation that otherwise can take over a pond. Koi, a type of carp, is the most common fish in Japanese gardens. Koi, which add a decorative touch with their flashes of gold and orange, must be provided with places to hide from predatory birds and animals.

Other residents of garden ponds include turtles and water snakes as well as a variety of insects and amphibians such as frogs and salamanders. Although not as decorative as koi, they all play a role in helping maintain the balance of a pond. Ponds and the surrounding vegetation also play host to waterfowl and other birds that provide a touch of spontaneity in gardens that in many ways are tightly managed. Finally, some parks and gardens are home to special residents such as the hoofed creatures that entertain visitors by bowing for food in Nara’s famous Deer Park.

Trees, clipped shrubs and groomed lawns provide interesting contrasts in both form and color at the Adachi Museum Garden in Shimane Prefecture.

Koi help maintain the balance of a pond in addition to adding a touch of color.

Weeping cherry trees at Hōkongōin, Kyoto.

Bamboo and autumn maple at Tenryūji Temple, Kyoto.

Stone path at Kōtōin, a sub-temple of Daitokuji Monastery, Kyoto.

Swans amid cherry blossoms at Hirosaki Castle Park in Aomori Prefecture, famous for its blossoms.

Azalea bush.

White lotus and red bridge in summer, Daikakuji Temple, Kyoto.

Stone path twisting through the bushes past a stone lantern.

Cherry blossoms along a stream at Kenrokuen Garden, Kanazawa.

Japanese maples in autumn at Tōkufuji Temple, Kyoto.

Kumazasa, a variety of dwarf bamboo (Sasa grass), often used in gardens.

Ostrich ferns grown in flatland where there is shade and moisture.

Dense grove of bamboo at Jizōin Temple, Kyoto.

One of the more than a hundred varieties of moss found at Saihōji, Kyoto’s Moss Temple.

Flowering irises provide color to the garden of Murin-an, Kyoto, in spring.

September lilies along the Yatsuhashi Bridge in Koishikawa Kōrakuen Garden, Tokyo.

THE CHANGING SEASONS

The main island of Japan (Honshu) has a temperate climate with four distinct seasons that long have been a major inspiration for the Japanese. The four seasons are expressed in picture scrolls and flower arrangements that are displayed in the recessed alcove (tokonoma) of a traditional room as well as in short poems (haiku). A particularly eloquent expression of the changing seasons is the annual cycle of a Japanese garden.

Featuring the Seasons

All gardens are planned in such a way that they will be beautiful throughout the year. This requires great attention to factors such as the succession of plants in bloom and the inclusion of different types of lanterns: some that mark the path in summer, and others that hold the snow in winter. Despite the general goal of changing with and reflecting all four seasons, most gardens are at their best during one or two seasons of the year, and a few are famous for a single event, such as the blooming of irises in the summer or the turning of maple leaves in the autumn.

An ancient method of featuring all four seasons in a single garden is described in The Tale of Genji, the world’s first full-length novel, written in the Heian Period. According to The Tale of Genji, the garden at the Rokujō Palace in the capital was divided into four quarters, one for each season, following Chinese principles of geomancy. Thus, a cool natural spring, appreciated most on a hot summer day, was included in the summer quarter located to the south. Thickly planted pines, beautiful after newly fallen snow, were planted in the winter quarter located to the north. The spring quarter was located in the east and the autumn quarter in the west.

Garden Sightseeing

Seasonal changes in Japan are major events, heralded by television announcements concerning the first appearance of a particular species of flower in the spring or the peak weekend for viewing cherry blossoms at specific locations around the country. Every spring, companies in the Kansai area—the southern-central region of Japan’s main island, Honshu—send a young employee to Osaka Castle Park to camp out for a couple of days in order to reserve a place under the budding cherry trees. When the blossoms open, an excited call to the company brings the other employees flocking for a party under the cherry trees. Since the blossoms do not last long, timing is everything.

The same is true in the fall. At the peak of the season for viewing maple leaves, millions jump in cars, buses and trains in an attempt to reach a favorite viewing spot, often a garden belonging to a temple, shrine or villa. Some temples depend upon the hundreds of thousands of dollars in admission fees that can be received on a single weekend to keep their buildings and grounds in repair.

Seasonal Variation in Gardens

Each of the four seasons described below is accompanied by a haiku, a brief 17-syllable “tone poem” that attempts to capture the beauty of a fleeting moment. Most haiku are dedicated to one of the four seasons. The translations are by R. N. Blythe.

Spring by Yaha

After the garden

Had been swept clean,

Some camellia flowers fell down

The reawakening of the Japanese garden in spring is heralded by flowering trees. The first trees to flower in the spring are plums, soon followed by cherry, peach and pear. Azaleas also make their appearance in late spring. Hirosaki Castle Park in Aomori Prefecture is most famous for its cherry blossoms, which are at their best in late April. Visitors come from all over the world to view the masses of blossoms that overhang the picturesque bridge and to participate in saké (rice wine) parties. Other famous spring gardens are Maruyama Park in Kyoto, well known for its weeping cherry trees, and Heian Shrine in Kyoto, also famous for its cherry blossoms.

Summer by Kirei

A single fire-fly coming

The garden

Is so dewy!

Summer in Japan is hot and humid. It is the best season for viewing a variety of flowering plants.

Irises and wisteria arrive in late spring to early summer. Other summer flowers are the blue bellflower, gardenia and lotus. Gardens that are particularly pleasing in summer are those with ponds, such as Kyoto’s Ginkakuji and Kinkakuji temples, where the silver and golden pavilions are reflected in the water, or the lotus garden at Meiji Shrine in Tokyo. Other famous summer gardens are Koishikawa Kōrakuen Garden in Tokyo, where one can follow an elevated boardwalk through masses of irises, and Sentō Gosho in Kyoto with its trellises of hanging wisteria. Summer is also the best time to view the delicate raked gravel patterns of karesansui gardens such as those at Ryōanji and Daisenin temples, both in the northwestern part of Kyoto.

Snow weighs down the pine branches at Kinkakuji (Temple of the Golden Pavilion), Kyoto.

Autumn by Basho

A hundred years old it looks

This temple garden

With its fallen leaves

In autumn the heat and humidity of summer gradually dissipate to be replaced by shorter, dryer days and cooler nights. In autumn, color is supplied by the foliage of trees such as maples and gingko, the former red and the latter yellow. Other favorite plants are bush clover, osmanthus and grasses that turn a variety of hues. Autumn is also famous for chrysanthemums. Though usually not planted in Japanese gardens, a variety of potted chrysanthemums are on display in the fall at temples, shrines and other public places. Favorite gardens for viewing colored leaves are those of Tōfukuji Temple in Kyoto and Jōruriji Temple near Nara.

Winter by Shado

In the newly made garden,

The stones have settled down in harmony;

The first winter shower.

Winter is marked by the disappearance of brighter colors from the Japanese garden. Evergreens, particularly the various species of pine, play an important role by providing contrast, not only to the gray color of rocks and stone lanterns but also to snow and the stems, trunks and branches of other trees and shrubs that have lost their leaves. Two gardens that are much visited in winter because of the large amounts of snow they receive are Kenrokuen Park in Kanazawa and the garden of Sanzenin Temple in the mountain village of Ōhara, near Kyoto. Another favorite winter garden is that of the Shūgakuin Detached Palace in the northeast of Kyoto.

BEHIND THE SCENES