Читать книгу Sextant: A Voyage Guided by the Stars and the Men Who Mapped the World’s Oceans - David Barrie - Страница 9

Sextant: I was nine years old when I first heard that magical word. It was 1963 and I had gone with my family to see Mutiny on the Bounty, starring Trevor Howard as the notorious Captain Bligh, whom he played as a choleric middle-aged martinet, and Marlon Brando as his infuriatingly condescending, toffee-nosed first officer, Fletcher Christian.^fn1 A luscious, big-budget movie, shot in the South Pacific around Tahiti, it ends with the burning of the Bounty by some of the mutineers after their arrival at the remote (and then incorrectly charted) Pitcairn Island. Fletcher, the leader of the mutiny, tries in vain to save the ship and, before abandoning it, calls out over the roar of the flames to his friend:

Fletcher: ‘Have you got the sextant, Ned?’

Ned [unable to hear]: ‘What?’

Fletcher [shouting desperately]: ‘Have you got the sextant?’

Ned: ‘No!’

[Fletcher dashes for the companionway that leads to the Captain’s cabin below the burning decks]

Ned [yelling in alarm]: ‘You can’t go now – it’s too late, Fletcher!’

Fletcher [rushing below regardless]: ‘We’ll never leave here without it!’

Fletcher dives into the blazing cabin and is horribly burned trying – in vain – to recover the precious instrument, later dying on the shore as the ship goes down in a shower of steam and sparks.

*

My father loved astronomy and, as a civil engineer, he had been trained in surveying and map-making. It was he who first showed me the night sky when I was a very small boy, standing in our Hampshire garden on many cold, clear winter nights beneath the dark Scots pines. He taught me to recognize the flattened ‘W’ of Cassiopeia, the great torso of Orion, and Ursa Major (the ‘Big Dipper’) with its twin pointers – Dubhe and Merak – that lead the eye to the North Star: Polaris. The Milky Way, I learned, was a galaxy composed of billions of stars to which our sun and solar system belonged as just one very small element.

As we left the cinema I asked my father what a sextant was, and why it mattered so much. I do not remember exactly what he said, but I gathered that it was a device for fixing your position anywhere in the world, on land or sea, by reference to the sun and stars – and that it was a vital tool for navigators sailing out of sight of land. Coupled with the terrifying image of Fletcher Christian diving into the inferno, his words caught my imagination: the thought of being marooned for ever on a small, remote island, unable ever to find the way home, was haunting. How could so much depend on one small instrument? And how could the unimaginably distant sun and stars help a sailor find his way across a vast ocean?

This was the beginning of my fascination with the art of navigation. I lived in a town on the south coast of England where sailing was a part of everyday life, and I first went out in an old-fashioned clinker-built dinghy with my parents when I was not much more than a toddler. I still remember dozing off on a sail-bag, tucked up under the half-deck, listening to the slap of the water on the bows, hypnotized by the gentle, broken rhythm of the waves. Later I sailed a dinghy of my own and crewed racing yachts, but I never much liked competitive sailing. What I loved was pilotage – the business of reading a chart, plotting a course, making allowances for compass variation and the effects of tidal streams, and all the other tricks of the coastal navigator’s trade.

Charts fascinated me. Those published by the British Admiralty were then still printed from engraved plates, and their appearance had not changed much since the nineteenth century. They had a solemn gravity, reflecting as they did the accumulated data of generations of dedicated marine surveyors. The traditional saying – ‘Trust in God and the Admiralty chart’ – was a measure of their exalted reputation. Unlike their metric successors, the old charts were soberly black and white. Prominent features on dry land that might be useful to the navigator – like church steeples or mountains – were shown, and detailed views of the coast were often included in the margins to aid recognition of important landmarks or hazards: the old surveyors were all trained as draughtsmen. Wrecks were marked with a variety of warning symbols depending on how much water covered them; those that broke the surface even at high water were marked with a grim little ship, slipping stern-first beneath the waves. The nature of the ‘ground’ (that is, the seabed) was indicated in a simple code – ‘m’ for mud, ‘sh’ for shingle, ‘s’ for sand, ‘rk’ for rock, ‘co’ for coral and so on. Charts vary enormously in scope: the large-scale ones of harbours might cover an area of only a few square miles, while others cover entire oceans. The smaller-scale ones are framed by a scale of degrees and minutes of latitude (north–south) and longitude (east–west), and the surface is carved up by lines marking the principal parallels and meridians – an abstract system of coordinates first conceived by Eratosthenes (c.276–194 BCE) and then refined by Hipparchus (c.190–120 BCE). Compass ‘roses’ help the navigator to lay off courses from one point to another, and show the local magnetic variation – the difference between true north and magnetic north.

From my father I learned something about surveying and the use of trigonometry – the mathematical technique for deducing the size of the unknown angles and sides of a triangle from measurements of those that are known. On our walks in the New Forest we sometimes came across the concrete triangulation pillars on which the British Ordnance Survey maps were based. Each pillar formed the corner of a triangle from which the other two corners were visible. Starting from a very accurately measured baseline, a network of such triangles extended across the whole country. By measuring the angles between the pillars using a theodolite, surveyors could determine the relative positions of each pillar with great accuracy, thereby providing the map-makers with an array of fixed points on which to build. In those days this system was still the key to land-based cartography.

Every marine chart was liberally sprinkled with ‘soundings’ – numbers representing the depth of water in old-fashioned fathoms (1 fathom to 6 feet), which crowded in even greater profusion round hazardous patches of sea. Particularly sinister were the places in the mid-ocean depths where a tight cluster indicated an isolated shoal – perhaps the tip of a ‘sea mount’ that did not quite break the surface. The Chaucer Bank, some 250 miles north of the Azores in the middle of the North Atlantic, is an example. On Admiralty chart no. 4009 (North Atlantic Ocean – Northern Portion, published in 1970) it rose up to a ‘reported’ minimum depth of 13 fathoms from waters that slide down rapidly to 1,000 fathoms or more. In heavy weather, seas would break on such a shoal – an alarming sight so far from land, and a potential hazard too. Before the advent of the electronic echo sounder in the 1920s all these soundings would have been taken with lead-lines – nothing more than a lump of lead on the end of a long, calibrated rope or wire. Triangulation could have been used the fix the positions of soundings along the coast, but what about those offshore, far out of sight of land? Of the vital part the sextant had played in hydrography – the mapping of the seas – I had as yet no idea.

As a teenager I sailed to Normandy and Brittany and around the west coasts of Ireland and Scotland. These excursions offered plenty of navigational challenges – the English Channel with its strong tidal currents and heavy shipping traffic is a dangerous stretch of water and the many rocky shoals of Brittany, Ireland and Scotland demand respect – but they did not call for the use of a sextant. Instead we relied on dead reckoning (DR – using the distance travelled and the course followed to estimate your position) corrected by radio direction-finding (RDF – fixing the boat’s position by taking compass bearings of radio beacons). If sailing at night, compass bearings of lighthouses were helpful too. While these methods worked well enough for short coastal passages, I wanted to know more: I was determined that one day I would learn how to navigate the open ocean by the sun and stars. I had not yet even seen a sextant, but the mysteries of celestial navigation already had me under their spell.

*

Just ten years after seeing Mutiny on the Bounty I got my first chance to handle a sextant when a family friend invited me to help him sail across the North Atlantic in his 35-foot sloop, Saecwen.^fn2 Colin McMullen was a retired Royal Navy captain and like many naval officers he was easy-going, relaxed and charming – useful if not essential qualities when sharing cramped accommodation for any length of time. Colin loved nothing better than an impromptu party. On the slightest pretext he would get out his accordion and start a ‘sing-song’, and if he was in particularly high spirits he might even put on a false beard and impersonate an ancient mariner with a strong west-country accent.

Colin was also fond of practical jokes, one of which almost cost him his life. As a young midshipman on board a small yacht being towed by a much larger vessel, he decided it would be amusing to climb along the tow rope and appear – as if by magic – on the deck of the mother ship. This meant scrambling along a heavy hawser, the middle of which frequently dipped beneath the surface of the sea. Colin was barely able to hold his breath long enough and nearly lost his grip as the cold, fast-moving water tugged at his submerged body. He was carpeted for this crazy escapade, but in the Royal Navy of the 1920s there was room for colourful characters, and it did his career no harm.

Colin had been messing about in boats since his childhood days at Waterville in County Kerry during the First World War. When he was posted to Malta in the 1930s he was given the enviable task of delivering the Commander-in-Chief’s official yacht to Venice, and I remember him talking rapturously about the summer days he spent along the Croatian coast aboard this large and elegant vessel. Most of his sailing, however, had been on a much more modest scale – notably in a small yacht called Fidget that he shared for a time with a group of fellow naval officers.

Colin bought Saecwen after retiring from the navy, and I first crewed for him when the two of us sailed her along the south coast of England from Dartmouth to her home port, Lymington, in early January 1972. It was an overnight trip and the weather was clear, cold and windless. As we motored slowly across the wide expanse of Lyme Bay I watched the ‘loom’ of French lighthouses, one of which – on the notorious Roches Douvres reef off the coast of Brittany – was nearly 80 miles away, far beyond the range at which it would normally be visible. The distant pencil beam of light rose briefly from below the horizon, sweeping up and over like the headlamps of a car making a sharp turn on the far side of a hill.^fn3

In the middle of my watch I heard the hatch slide back, and there was Colin – who should have been asleep – with two cups of hot cocoa. While I steered we sat together looking up at the night sky, our breath smoking in the cold. It was then that we first talked about celestial navigation. Colin pointed out the stars to me and recalled his days as a young naval cadet, just after the First World War, when learning to handle a sextant and plot a line of position had been nothing but a chore. Now he was planning a transatlantic cruise in Saecwen and was looking forward to brushing up his old skills. Nothing was said at the time, but later that year Colin asked if I might be free for six weeks or so the following summer; the trip to America was going ahead and he was looking for crew on the return voyage to England. As a university student with time to spare I eagerly accepted the invitation: here was a chance not only to cross an ocean under sail but also to learn the art of celestial navigation from a professional whom I admired. But transatlantic passages in small boats were not yet the fairly routine events they have since become. Looking back I am amazed that my mother, who had been widowed not long before, raised no objections. She must have felt the risks were worth taking.

*

On a sticky evening in early July 1973 I arrived at Falmouth, a small town on the coast just north of Portland, Maine. It was my first visit to the USA, and I had travelled up from New York on the Greyhound bus. The licence plates on the cars announced that I was in ‘Vacationland’, the temperature was in the 90s and the humidity was only slightly less than in Manhattan, though the still air was refreshingly clean. From the bus terminal I took a cab to the Portland Yacht Club, and as I walked down the jetty I caught sight of Saecwen lying at a mooring only 50 yards away. Rocky islands covered with hemlock and spruce lay further offshore. Colin was watching out for me and pulled across at once in the rowing dinghy to pick me up. It was strange to step aboard Saecwen again in such different surroundings, but as the deck gently rocked beneath my feet I felt almost as if I had come home. I slung my bag into the starboard quarter berth where I was to sleep for the coming weeks, absorbed the familiar smells, and came up on deck where Colin handed me a can of beer – very welcome in that heat. He was not alone on board Saecwen. There were two other crew members at this stage – Colin’s sister, Louise de Mowbray, and his cousin, Alexa Du Vivier, who was just seventeen. We talked about Saecwen’s voyage out across the Atlantic – it had been tough going, with several gales, and one member of the crew had suffered so badly from seasickness that he had been forced to leave the boat in the Azores. Transatlantic passages by small yachts were then sufficiently rare that Saecwen’s British ensign had caused a lot of excitement when she arrived in Gloucester, Massachusetts. The news media had soon discovered Colin who, playing the role of old British sea-dog to perfection, had been interviewed on TV and radio. He was delighted by all the attention.

We set sail the next morning. Wherever Saecwen dropped anchor, as we cruised north and east through the rocky, wooded islands that sprinkle the coast of Maine, complete strangers appeared offering food, showers and lifts to the shops – and we did not hesitate to accept. I started to read Samuel Eliot Morison’s classic account of the early European voyages of discovery to the Americas, which I found on board. I learned – to my surprise – that it was French rather than British mariners who had first properly charted the seaboard along which we were now sailing. The north-east coast of America is notorious for its cold fogs, but luckily we encountered little until we set out across the Bay of Fundy, from Grand Manan Island, past Yarmouth towards Cape Sable at the southern end of Nova Scotia. Fog is strangely disorienting and at times it was so thick that we could hardly see the bows of the boat from the cockpit. Colin was busy plotting our position by RDF as we rounded Cape Sable by night when we had a bizarre encounter with a ferry whose approach first became apparent when we heard the distant beat of pop music. It grew steadily louder until at last the thump-thump of the ship’s propellers also became audible. By now we were really worried, but there was little we could do to reduce the risk of a collision apart from tooting feebly on our small foghorn, all too well aware that we had little or no chance of being heard. Suddenly the blurry outline of a big ship, brilliantly illuminated, emerged from the fog, and the air was filled, bizarrely, with Bill Haley’s ‘Rock Around the Clock’.

The ferry shot past us at a distance of no more than a quarter of a mile, disappearing again very quickly, while the music gradually faded. We were carrying a radar reflector and ought to have been plainly visible on the ship’s radar, but we had the uncomfortable feeling that no one had seen us – and we knew that if we had been run down, the slight bump would probably have passed unnoticed. There was an inflatable life raft lashed to the foredeck, but even if we could have launched it in time, in those cold waters rescue would have had to come quickly. On the open sea, collision is the biggest risk faced by a well-managed yacht, as we were dramatically reminded a few weeks later, far out in the Atlantic.

*

Our last port of call was the magnificent and historic natural harbour of Halifax, Nova Scotia, where we spent a week busily preparing for the crossing. Louise now flew home, leaving just Colin, Alexa and me aboard Saecwen.

Halifax served as the Royal Navy’s main base in America during the Seven Years’ War, a pan-European conflict that formally broke out in 1756 (though hostilities between the British and French and their native allies had already begun in America) and was fought in many different parts of the world. It was here that James Cook – who was to become one of the greatest European explorers – began to learn the science of surveying from Samuel Holland, a military engineer serving with General Wolfe.¹

In 1759 Cook played a key part in the daring survey work in open boats on the narrow and dangerous ‘Traverses’ of the St Lawrence River below Quebec City. The safe channels having been marked, the British fleet was able to pass the Traverses without a single loss, thereby permitting Wolfe to land his forces upstream of Quebec. The French Governor angrily commented: ‘The enemy have passed 60 ships of war where we dare not risk a vessel of 100 tons by night or day.’² Wolfe and his French opposite number, Montcalm, both lost their lives in the famous battle on the Plains of Abraham that followed, but Quebec fell to the British, and the final expulsion of the French from North America soon followed.

Cook, who had not yet received an officer’s commission, continued surveying throughout his time on the American coast and in 1761 he was given a bonus of £50 ‘in consideration of his indefatigable Industry in making himself Master of the Pilotage of the River St Lawrence &c’ – a most unusual distinction.³ The following year, while assisting in the recapture of the port of St John’s, Newfoundland, Cook worked with another remarkable military engineer, Joseph DesBarres, and carried out important surveys that brought him to the attention of the Admiralty in London.⁴ He was starting to make his name.

*

Colin’s original plan had been to carry on to St John’s, Newfoundland, calling on the way at the small islands of St Pierre and Miquelon – the last remaining French outposts in North America, which Cook surveyed in 1763⁵ just before they were returned to France at the end of the Seven Years’ War. However, the icebergs emerging from the Arctic had drifted much further south than usual in the summer of 1973, and we decided that it was wiser not to go any further north. Dodging icebergs in a wooden boat is risky. The most dangerous kind are the ‘growlers’ – small pieces of ice but still weighing many tons, completely awash and therefore almost invisible above the surface – and bumping into one of them might have brought our voyage to a quick and fatal conclusion.

The last couple of days in Halifax were filled with lists. There were loads of provisions to buy, including a whole chicken in a tin to be saved for a special occasion. Everything had to be carefully stowed in one of Saecwen’s many lockers, and a record kept of its location. Having removed their paper labels – which might well get washed off – we marked the tinned goods with a waterproof felt pen. Fresh vegetables and fruit went into cargo nets hanging from the low cabin roof. We checked the rigging for signs of wear, and I was hoisted in a bosun’s chair to make sure that all was well at the masthead. Looking down from that height Saecwen seemed very small indeed. Finally we did our laundry, filled up with diesel fuel, paid the harbour dues and said farewell to our Canadian friends. Early the next day we topped up the water tank, cast off and motored down the harbour.

The taking of Departure [wrote Joseph Conrad], if not the last sight of the land, is, perhaps the last professional recognition of the land on the part of a sailor … It is not the ship that takes her departure; the seaman takes his Departure by means of cross-bearings which fix the place of the first tiny pencil-cross on the white expanse of the track chart, where the ship’s position at noon shall be marked by just such another tiny pencil-cross for every day of her passage.⁶

We took our Departure from a whistle buoy just off the harbour entrance. Thousands of miles of ocean and weeks of sailing lay ahead of us. We had no way of telling what weather we might face and would not be able to receive forecasts. We could only keep an eye on the barometer and hope for the best. I felt like an actor stepping on to the stage at the start of a big performance as I hauled up the sails. We hardened the sheets and Colin cut the engine. Apart from the sound of the wind and waves all was quiet. Saecwen heeled to the south-easterly breeze and began to dip her bows into the Atlantic swells. Cold spray rattled over my oilskins. Here we go, I said to myself.