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1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Authors and research centres listed at the start of a research pa...Figure 1.2 Paper written by multiple authors on behalf of several research g...Figure 1.3 Acknowledgement of statistical, financial, and other support at t...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 An example of a structured Abstract – this one from a trial of tw...Figure 2.2 An unstructured Abstract accompanied by a list of Keywords indica...Figure 2.3 Explaining the background to a research study.Figure 2.4 Introduction explaining the rationale for the study.Figure 2.5 Ethical considerations in a study involving adults with a learnin...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Statement of a study's main hypothesis.Figure 3.2 A study with two hypotheses.Figure 3.3 The (structured) Abstract of a qualitative study, starting with a...Figure 3.4 The aim of the qualitative study.Figure 3.5 New subgroup analysis in report of an RCT.

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 A qualitative study examining views and experience of tests and i...Figure 4.2 Grounded theory as the theoretical basis for a study examining pa...Figure 4.3 A qualitative study employing ethnographic (participant observati...Figure 4.4 A qualitative study involving focus groups and individual intervi...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Types of research study design.Figure 5.2 Extract from case series of bouncy castle injuries.Figure 5.3 Extract from cross‐sectional study about bouncy castle injuries....Figure 5.4 Prevalence of a clinical feature, determined in a cross‐sectional...Figure 5.5 Extract from a cross‐sectional (incidence) study about frequency ...Figure 5.6 Use of a survey method in a cross‐sectional study.

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Findings from an ecological study about smoking and domestic fire...Figure 6.2 Extract from table of summary statistics from cross‐sectional stu...Figure 6.3 A case–control study examining the relation between cannabis use ...Figure 6.4 A retrospective cohort analytic study examining the relation betw...Figure 6.5 Prospective cohort analytic study examining the relation between ...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Summary of a randomized controlled trial investigating an interve...Figure 7.2 Summary of a randomized controlled trial evaluating the effect of...Figure 7.3 Extract from a randomized controlled trial, describing the use of...Figure 7.4 A flow chart to illustrate Zelen's procedure for post‐randomizati...Figure 7.5 Summary of a randomized controlled trial evaluating the effect of...Figure 7.6 Extract from a pragmatic trial comparing face‐to‐face consultatio...Figure 7.7 Abstract for a randomized controlled feasibility study examining ...Figure 7.8 Extracts from the Methods section of a cluster randomised control...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Concurrent use of qualitative and quantitative approaches to data...Figure 8.2 A sequential approach to data collection is combined with a concu...Figure 8.3 Results from qualitative and quantitative research studies can be...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Description of a complex intervention.Figure 9.2 Representation of the development of a complex intervention and i...Figure 9.3 Use of a composite outcome measure in a systematic review.Figure 9.4 Process evaluation in an RCT.

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Abstract describing the rationale and methods for a systematic r...Figure 10.2 Cochrane Review of local treatments for skin warts showing that ...Figure 10.3 Funnel plot used to check for publication bias in a meta‐analysi...Figure 10.4 L'Abbé plot showing outcomes from 37 placebo‐controlled trials o...Figure 10.5 Forest plot showing comparison of dietary saturated fatty acid r...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Statement of review objective and search strategy in a study exp...Figure 11.2 Example of synthesis of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed‐met...Figure 11.3 Example of a qualitative review that used meta‐ethnography to ad...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 A national survey of deaths from suicide and their relation to t...Figure 12.2 Reporting from a National Case Register of the rare disease, var...Figure 12.3 Results from a population‐based study of self‐harm.Figure 12.4 A service‐based study, undertaken in a specialist clinic, of com...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 A study which describes two random samples.Figure 13.2 A systematic sample of patients attending clinics on particular ...Figure 13.3 Sample size calculation in a clinical trial.

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Cohort study based upon already‐collected primary care data (CPR...Figure 14.2 Data on self‐reported self‐harm from a national survey.Figure 14.3 Outcome study based upon linking already‐collected datasets, wit...Figure 14.4 Missing data in a birth cohort study used to estimate outcomes a...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Sampling purposively – for diversity in an observational study a...Figure 15.2 Sample characteristics chosen for maximum variation and sample s...Figure 15.3 Clarifying the unit of analysis: not 15 participants, but 65 ‘di...Figure 15.4 Example of a sampling matrix; in this case one which might have ...

16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria applied to recruits into a tria...Figure 16.2 Flow chart describing the participants in a randomized controlle...

17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 Comparison results from a clinical population with published pop...Figure 17.2 A case control study comparing exposure to influenza vaccine in ...Figure 17.3 Non‐random selection of intervention and control groups in a tri...

18 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 Types of data.Figure 18.2 Types of data used to describe the baseline characteristics of s...Figure 18.3 Types of data used in a study comparing Foley catheter versus pr...Figure 18.4 A positively skewed histogram showing the number (frequency) of ...Figure 18.5 Normally distributed Jamaican birthweight data.

19 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 Hypothetical normally distributed systolic blood pressure (b.p.)...Figure 19.2 A small part of a baseline table describing the characteristics ...Figure 19.3 Baseline characteristics in an acute back pain study.

20 Chapter 20Figure 20.1 A study of patients' aggression, where the boundaries of the dat...Figure 20.2 A study of neighbourhood influences on physical activity in olde...Figure 20.3 Use of photos to elicit responses in a semi‐structured interview...Figure 20.4 The unit of analysis may be a significant utterance, phrase, or ...

21 Chapter 21Figure 21.1 Summary and part of a table from a randomized controlled trial, ...Figure 21.2 Baseline or casemix measures from a clinical trial.Figure 21.3 Blinding patients and staff so that measures made later can be m...Figure 21.4 Blinding people who are extracting case note information to the ...Figure 21.5 Dealing with missing values in a clinical trial.

22 Chapter 22Figure 22.1 Martin et al. (2019),Figure 22.2 Diversity as a characteristic of the participants in a study of ...

23 Chapter 23Figure 23.1 Diagnostic plots showing: Panel (a) Sympathetic skin response (S...Figure 23.2 Three ROC curves from a study to predict future diabetes when as...

24 Chapter 24Figure 24.1 Extract from a paper reporting the development of a new scale to...Figure 24.2 The scale properties of validity and reliability in a scale to m...Figure 24.3 Extract from a study in which the authors examine the concurrent...Figure 24.4 Demonstrating construct validity, from a paper on the use of SF‐...Figure 24.5 Authors' comment on the correlations between scale scores from t...Figure 24.6 Using κ to examine the test–retest (reliability) property o...

25 Chapter 25Figure 25.1 Use of tailored topic guides in a study exploring experiences of...Figure 25.2 Use of a predetermined set of questions (a topic guide) in a stu...

26 Chapter 26Figure 26.1 Summary of a descriptive study setting out rates and proportions...

27 Chapter 27Figure 27.1 Terminology in common use when describing the chance of tossing ...Figure 27.2 A plausible result from two tosses of a coin.Figure 27.3 Determining risk in a cohort study.Figure 27.4 Determining odds (expressed as one odds relative to another) in ...

28 Chapter 28Figure 28.1 Summary and extract from the Results section of a cohort analyti...Figure 28.2 Summary and extract from the Results section of a case–control s...Figure 28.3 Summary from a clinical trial where the main findings are set ou...

29 Chapter 29Figure 29.1 Confidence intervals from a study comparing annual with twice‐ye...Figure 29.2 95% confidence intervals for the mean difference in outcomes fro...Figure 29.3 Four possible 95% confidence intervals for the difference betwee...Figure 29.4 Comparison of outcomes in patients between a multidisciplinary i...Figure 29.5 From Hartley et al. (2018),

30 Chapter 30Figure 30.1 The adjusted odds ratios, stratified by income, for the prevalen...Figure 30.2 Relative risks (risk ratios) from a large cohort study (47 000 m...

31 Chapter 31Figure 31.1 A hypothetical 2 × 2 contingency table showing sample frequencie...Figure 31.2 Use of the χ² test in a comparison of additional catheter‐d...Figure 31.3 Relative risks (risk ratios) for causes of poor outcome in patie...Figure 31.4 Odds ratios and adjusted (for social class) odds ratios (and 95%...Figure 31.5 Results of two‐sample t‐test to compare outcomes from two treatm...

32 Chapter 32Figure 32.1 Scatterplot of hypothetical Glasgow Coma Scale scores given to 1...Figure 32.2 Scatterplot of percentage mortality from aortic aneurysm in 16 h...Figure 32.3 Scatterplot of the Patient‐Reported Outcomes Measurement Informa...Figure 32.4 Pearson correlation coefficients (and p‐values) between adult mo...Figure 32.5 Spearman correlation coefficients between breast size and a numb...

33 Chapter 33Figure 33.1 Assessing agreement with Cohen's or Fleiss' κ .Figure 33.2 Agreement about types of intercranial haemorrhage between three ...Figure 33.3 Injury Severity Scores (ISS) given by two observers to 16 trauma...Figure 33.4 Bland–Altman plots of Patient‐Reported Outcomes Measurement Info...

34 Chapter 34Figure 34.1 The main components of a linear regression model.Figure 34.2 Scatter plot of birthweight against cord serum EPA acid concentr...Figure 34.3 Results of multiple linear regression from a prospective study t...Figure 34.4 A simple coding design for the nominal variable Ethnic group of ...

35 Chapter 35Figure 35.1 Multivariable logistic regression model for the association betw...Figure 35.2 Multivariate logistic regression analysis of effects of method o...

36 Chapter 36Figure 36.1 Incident rate ratios (IRRs) and their 95% confidence intervals, ...Figure 36.2 Risk ratios and 95% confidence intervals, for effect of adherenc...Figure 36.3 Distribution of days of sickness absence among pregnant women in...Figure 36.4 Results (simplified) from a zero‐inflated Poisson regression mod...Figure 36.5 Incidence rate ratios (IRRs), from a cross‐sectional study into ...Figure 36.6 Goodness‐of‐fit (as measured by log‐likelihood) of four regressi...

37 Chapter 37Figure 37.1 Kaplan–Meier survival curves from a randomized trial of the effe...Figure 37.2 Kaplan–Meier analysis of post‐progression survival (PPS) in the ...Figure 37.3 Hazard ratios showing the association between several individual...

38 Chapter 38Figure 38.1 Based on Facchin and Margola (2016).Figure 38.2 Sample of three themes and corresponding meaning units. From a s...Figure 38.3 Illness narratives among drug users living with HIV/AIDS.Figure 38.4 A theory of reconciling incompatibilities.

39 Chapter 39Figure 39.1 Extract from a results section to illustrate the interplay of te...Figure 39.2 Extract from a results section to illustrate more complex interp...Figure 39.3 Abstract from a clinical trial to illustrate the setting out of ...Figure 39.4 Abstract from a case–control study to illustrate the setting out...Figure 39.5 How the clarity of a table depends on its layout and the legend....Figure 39.6 How the clarity of a table depends on its layout and the legend....Figure 39.7 A table that successfully uses brackets, dashes and the word ‘to...

40 Chapter 40Figure 40.1 Trial profile, showing who was potentially eligible and what hap...Figure 40.2 Pie chart, showing categories of otology cases discussed at mult...Figure 40.3 Bar chart comparing disease prevalence before and after fly cont...Figure 40.4 Bar chart with error bars.Figure 40.5 Line graph with error bars, showing mean sleep durations for var...Figure 40.6 Stacked bar charts displaying a pattern over time.Figure 40.7 Chart using horizontal marks (with error bars) to indicate relat...Figure 40.8 Histograms shown in a hybrid figure (also showing a scatterplot)...Figure 40.9 A comparison of two box plots (or box‐and‐whisker charts) accomp...Figure 40.10 An infographic – carefully selected material from a clinical gu...

41 Chapter 41Figure 41.1 A Discussion that starts with a résumé of the study findings bef...Figure 41.2 Critical appraisal of a study's results.Figure 41.3 A summary box which outlines a study's importance and main findi...