Читать книгу Walking in the Yorkshire Dales: North and East - Dennis Kelsall - Страница 9

INTRODUCTION

Looking beyond Keld to distant Lovely Seat (Walk 24)

THE DALES LANDSCAPE

The Yorkshire Dales is like nowhere else in England, a place of intrinsic and striking beauty that owes its scenic qualities both to nature and to man. Bestriding the central Pennines, that broad range of hills erupting along the middle of the country, and known to generations of schoolchildren as the ‘backbone of England’, the Dales boasts a diversity of landscape and character that is hard to beat.

Walkers trudging up the Pennine Way from the south into Craven leave the sombre mill valleys that fragment the desolate, weather-beaten moors of West Yorkshire and East Lancashire to be greeted by a brighter, more intimate scene of interwoven horizons. Rolling green hills, broken here and there by rugged scars of white limestone, rise to a distant, higher ground dissected by deepening valleys. Further east and to the north, the wild moors dominate, but even here a varied geology of underlying rock breaks up their melancholic uniformity.

It is perhaps perverse that, as an upland region, the Yorkshire Dales is named after its most low-lying elements. But, like the neighbouring Lake District, it is this complementary feature that determines its endearing uniqueness. Just as the Cumbrian mountains would be the less without scintillating tarns and lakes to reflect their awesome ruggedness, the character of the Dales hills relies on the gentle beauty that rises up from the long, deep and twisting valleys emanating from the core. Devoid of the dramatic impact of soaring peaks, knife-edge ridges and great hanging valleys, the mountains here might otherwise be regarded as unremarkable, with little to distinguish them from the other hills of the Pennine range, but their intimacy with the gentle valleys that they enclose is what truly sets them apart.

Field barns are a feature of the Wensleydale pastures (Walk 30)

Despite the steep gradients that act as boundaries between the upper moors and the lowlands, it is often hard to define where the one begins and the other ends. Stroll in rich water meadows beside a serpentine river flowing in a flat-bottomed valley, or stride upon an airy plateau beneath vast, open skies, and there is little doubt where you are. But walk from one to the other and the transition is often quite subtle. In many places, the neatly walled grazing pastures of the lower valleys climb high up the slope, sometimes intermingled with variegated woodlands that soften the craggy steps. In their higher reaches, the valley bottoms can often feel utterly remote from the rest of the world, and have an untamed complexion that is more akin to the uplands. On the wildest of the tops, great morasses of peat hag and bog might stretch for miles, but even here the tendrils of the ubiquitous stone walls are never far away, encompassing bleak tracts of land and signifying a belonging to some farm settlement in the valley far below.

Ancient trackways and paths ignore these geographical divisions, and connect this dale to that, or lead up to small mines and quarries that were often as integral to a farming income as the cows’ milk and ewes’ wool. Although the contours of the land mean that summits are rarely visible from the valley floor, and vice versa, for much of the way in between, the wider views encompass them both. And it is from this perspective that the two really do come together to be appreciated as a single entity – the Yorkshire Dales.

Set between the Stainmoor and Aire gaps north and south, the Lune Valley in the west, and running out onto the great expanse of the Vale of York to the east, the Dales covers a relatively compact area of upland plateau fragmented by a number of main valley systems. The tumbling rivers of the Swale, Ure, Nidd, Wharfe and Aire all unite in the River Ouse, which, meeting the Trent, becomes the Humber as it runs into the North Sea. The Ribble, together with those streams gathered by the peripheral Lune, finds its freedom to the west in the Irish Sea, while Mallerstang alone drains northward along the Eden Valley to Carlisle and the Solway Firth. Feeding these main rivers is a multitude of lesser ones that gnaw deep into the heartland, creating a maze of smaller valleys and dales, each proclaiming its own subtly different character.

West Close Barn in Sleddale (Walk 34)

This variance is rooted in underlying geology and positional geography, and is also the product of elemental forces, but important too is the way man has settled and exploited the Dales over millennia. Farming, husbandry, woodland management, quarrying and mining have all left their mark on the slopes, and here, at least, it can be said that the cumulative efforts of successive generations has unconsciously helped in the creation of one of the loveliest landscapes in the country.

Although numerous lanes and tracks wind deep into the heart of the Dales, it is really only the leisurely freedom of pedestrian exploration that enables a true appreciation of its unique charm. This, the second of two volumes, is a wanderer’s guide to the northern and eastern parts of the area, savouring its ups, downs and endless in-betweens. The various walks seek out spectacular viewpoints, dramatic landforms, curious natural features and attractive hamlets and villages, but more than that, they simply delight in the subtly changing scenery. There is something for everyone in this guidebook, from gentle walks along valleys and hillsides, to more demanding upland romps that take in the high hills and remote moors of the hinterland. For the newcomer in particular, this is an invaluable companion. In addition to the route descriptions, there is background information on many of the features encountered along the way. While some routes are inevitably popular, many others take you off the beaten track to less-visited spots, and even those who know the Dales may well find new corners.

EVOLUTION OF THE LANDSCAPE

Geological history

The unique character and unquestionable charm of the Yorkshire Dales has its roots in the underlying bedrock, much of which was created during the Carboniferous period 300 million years ago. At a time when, in other areas, massive coal, gas and oil fields were being laid down in the accumulating detritus of humid forest swamps, the area which has become the Dales lay beneath a shallow tropical sea. Here, the broken shells of countless marine creatures settled to form a bed of limestone over 200m thick. Known as the Great Scar Limestone, it dominates the scenery of the southwestern corner of the Yorkshire Dales National Park and underlies its central core.

Eventually, river deltas encroached from the north, washing mud and sand across the coastal shelf. But this was a period of cyclically changing sea levels, creating sequential strata of shale and weak sandstones, repeatedly topped off by limestone as lagoon conditions intermittently returned. Each band is only around 12m thick, but the build up over aeons formed a kind of ‘layer cake’, over 300m deep.

The River Ure at Slapestone Wath (Walk 28)

Named the Yoredale Series, because of its appearance in the valley of the River Ure – Wensleydale – this banded rock forms the basis of the northern portion of the national park, and extends further south as higher peaks and ridges. The upper levels of the layering culminate in a hard, impervious sandstone known as millstone grit, reflecting one of its uses, and the remnants of this form the southern hill tops and the high ground of the northern fells.

Although originally laid down in neat, horizontal bands, these rocks were subsequently folded by a massive earth movement that created the Pennines. Fractures separated the section underlying the Yorkshire Dales, known as the Askrigg Block, from the rest of the mountain chain, and it was pushed up from the south and the west, putting the Carboniferous strata of the block far above the younger rocks that lie to the south. The block tilts gently backwards, and whereas weathering has exposed the older limestones in the southwest of the area, the more recent Yoredale rocks remain on top to the northeast.

The lines of fracture are dramatically evident in the three main Craven Faults, which cut across the southern part of the national park. Giggleswick Scar – the line of towering cliffs overlooking the B6480 west of Settle – is part of the South Craven Fault, which continues its line southeast towards Skipton. The Mid-Craven Fault is marked by a long line of cliffs of which Malham Cove and Gordale Scar are a part, while the North Craven Fault runs parallel to it at the southern lip of Malham Tarn.

In a few places, the limestone of the block has been worn away to expose rocks from an even earlier era, the Ordovician, which, unlike the even Carboniferous formations, are extravagantly crumpled, and consist of slates, grits and mudstones. These can be seen in the quarries of Ribblesdale and around Ingleton, and are also exposed as an impervious basement layer in the southern valleys, perhaps most vividly in Thornton Force and along the Ingleton Falls.

The character of the Howgills clearly sets them apart from the rest of the Dales, and with the Middleton Fells, they are separated from the Askrigg Block by another fracture line – the Dent Fault. This runs in a rough north–south line east of Sedbergh, but here the displacement has been in the opposite direction, elevating the older rocks that lie to the west. Geologically these hills are part of the Lake District, and are composed of much-folded metamorphosed slates and grits from the Silurian period, about 100 million years older than the Carboniferous rocks making up the Askrigg Block. Their grassy flanks sweep steeply upwards from deep ravines to broad, rounded tops, whose long interconnecting ridges, once attained, offer immensely satisfying walking.

Field barn above the River Swale below Ivelet Side (Walk 21)

Some of the most spectacular scenery of the national park is to be found in the areas dominated by the Great Scar Limestone – Malham Cove, Gordale, Kingsdale, Twisleton, Lower Ribblesdale and the middle reaches of Wharfedale. Towering lines of white cliffs and scars, shake holes, sinks, potholes, caves, disappearing and resurgent streams and rivers, dry valleys and waterfalls, clints and grikes, are all features of this remarkable karst landscape. Overlooking the fault lines, the cliffs result from the upward movement of the Askrigg Block, but the terraces along the valley side are due to the relative resistance of different layers to erosive weathering. A similar picture is seen further north in the Yoredale Series, where the successive bands of limestone are comparatively harder than the intervening strata of sandstones, producing the stepped profile that is so characteristic of Wharfedale and Swaledale. It is this same process that gives rise to the many spectacular waterfalls of the region, the water cascading over a lip of hard limestone, but undercutting into the softer rock that lies below.

The most intriguing features of karst landscapes are those that result from the solubility of the bedrock in rainwater. The rain’s slight acidity dissolves the stone, exploiting crevices and vertical stress fractures, and ultimately creating the awe-inspiring potholes and caves for which the area is famous. Whole rivers are swallowed into the ground, either in abruptly sensational falls such as Gaping Gill, or merely disappearing intermittently into their beds, as does the River Nidd in its higher reaches.

Just as magical are the Nidd’s resurgences lower down, the river having coursed between two points deep underground in the dark and constricted passages and fissures that are the province of intrepid potholers and cave divers. At Stump Cross, these dramatic passages are sufficiently accessible to have been opened as show caves, allowing visitors to marvel at fantastic stalactites, stalagmites and other formations, created as incessant drips of lime-rich water evaporated over millennia, leaving the lime behind. Occasionally, similar deposits are also seen on the surface in the form of tufa, where calcite is precipitated from the cascading water. And at How Stean Gorge, the river runs through a dramatically narrow canyon, which is explained as a collapsed cave.

While streams, even after rain, are something of a rarity on the limestone uplands of the south, dry valleys are not. Like Trow Gill and Conistone Dib, they can be stunningly spectacular – deep, narrow ravines, stepped with the walls of ancient waterfalls. Occasionally, following heavy rain, rivulets might briefly cascade through, but these bear little resemblance to the overwhelming torrents of meltwater that created them, as the last ice age came to an end. Where rivers flow uninterrupted today, they have usually worn the valley down to a bedrock of impervious stone, or else flow over deposits of clay dumped by retreating glaciers.

The extensive clint fields, or limestone pavements, also have their origins in the last ice age. Initially levelled to a bedding plane and stripped clean by glacial action, they were re-covered with clay debris when the ice finally retreated. Seeping rainwater subsequently picked out vertical lines of weakness to form the grikes, fragmenting the pavement into blocks – the clints. Eventual erosion of the thin soil cover, perhaps as a result of woodland clearance, or grazing by early man’s livestock, has once more revealed the bare pavements that are now such a striking feature. Accumulating soil in the base of the grikes holds moisture, and this shelter creates micro-habitats that are home to an astonishing variety of plantlife, rare on an otherwise quite barren landscape.

Also composed of limestone, although of a different formation to the Great Scar, is a striking line of small hills between Malham and Grassington. Termed reef knolls, they are the remnants of a coral barrier reef that marked the edge of a shelf in the shallow sea. Erosion of the later, overlying softer deposits has revealed these submarine hillocks once more, distinctive because of their conical shape.

Away from the Great Scar, the scenery is no less stirring – a great plateau of high ground fragmented by deep valleys, with just a few mountain tops daring to poke their flat heads above the rest. Most famous amongst these are the Yorkshire Three Peaks – Whernside, Ingleborough and Pen-y-ghent – planted well apart around the head of Ribblesdale. But the northern part of the Dales boasts its own heights in Baugh Fell, Wild Boar Fell, Great Shunner Fell and others.

Looking across the foot of Arkengarthdale to Calver Hill (Walk 15)

Although not one of the Dales peaks culminates in a dramatic pinnacle summit, their flanks climb steeply out of the surrounding valleys, rising in terraces through the Yoredale Series. Alternating bands of springy grass and lines of sink holes, heather heath and then marsh, reflect the nature of the changing geology underfoot, culminating in an undulating upland bog held upon the upper sandstone and gritstone cap.

It is this layering too that is responsible for the impressive waterfalls in Wensleydale, in particular the falls on the River Ure at Aysgarth, and the great cascade of Hardraw Force above Hawes. Shake holes too are a common feature of the bands of limestone, and nowhere are they more spectacular than beside the Buttertubs Pass.

While geology and subterranean force may have laid the foundation for the Dales landscape, it is the natural elements that have been responsible for moulding it. And nothing has been more dramatic in its effect than the action of ice. During the last half-million years of its history, Britain has been subjected to at least three major ice ages, when vast glacial sheets, many hundreds of feet thick, inexorably fanned out from the mountain areas across much of the country. Although the general topography of the area had already been set before the ice ages began, each new advance scoured the land back to the very bedrock, gouging valleys ever deeper, and straightening their erratic fluvial courses. When the thaws came, boulder and clay debris were dumped far from their origins, and unimaginable volumes of water were released. What we see today are just the finishing touches left by the latest glacial period, whose icy tendrils melted from these valleys 12,000 years ago.

Old miners’ cottages in Langthwaite (Walk 16)

The legacy of the ice can been traced throughout the Dales in characteristic rounded hills, straight U-shaped valleys and the dramatic cliffs of truncated spurs. The moving ice carried boulders long distances, and moulded underlying clay into distinctive egg-shaped hills called drumlins, which can be seen to fine advantage in Wensleydale and Ribblesdale. With the thaw, the unstable sides of overly steep valleys slumped in landslide, and layers of boulder clay were dumped along the base of valleys, allowing surface rivers to flow over limestone.

Some dales were dammed with terminal moraines that held back lakes, but all but two of these – Malham Tarn and Semer Water – have subsequently silted up or drained away. The deluge of meltwater cut spectacularly narrow ravines through the rock and created majestic waterfalls. Some of these still carry water today – although mere trickles by comparison with the former torrents of their creation – and are well worth looking out for.

Human settlement

Homo sapiens appeared in Europe some 40,000 years ago, and during the warm interludes between glaciation, wandered into Britain. But with each ice age driving them back south and wiping the archaeological slate almost clean, those early incursions of people, and the beasts that they followed for food, have left few traces.

Stone Age peoples eventually returned to the Dales around 9000 years ago, small bands of hunter-gatherers eking a nomadic existence in a steadily warming climate. Although artefacts are thin on the ground, they left their mark by beginning the clearance of primeval woodland, a process that gathered momentum with the later development of agriculture and the transition to a more settled lifestyle. The many caves and crevices in the limestone hills served as shelters for living and burial, a fact which perhaps explains the relative absence here of the constructed internment chambers, cairns and henges found elsewhere in the country.

By the time of the Bronze Age, large areas had been cleared for grazing and agriculture, but a deterioration in climate led to the spread of extensive blanket bog across the upper plateaux.

Collapsed stone walls line the processional entrance to Maiden Castle (Walk 14)

While habitation sites and field systems from earlier eras are known, their more prominent traces have been largely obliterated by later settlement, and there is little visible evidence pre-dating the Iron Age. The area fell within the territory of a British tribe known as the Brigantes, and many settlement sites and earthwork structures have been identified. Maiden Castle above Reeth and the extensive fortification surrounding the summit of Ingleborough are amongst the most spectacular examples.

Although the Romans did establish a permanent fort at Bainbridge around AD80, they never really subjugated the hill tribes. In fact there appears to have been a relatively peaceful co-existence with lowland farmers, who would have found ready markets for their produce in the Roman economy until the eventual withdrawal of the occupation forces a little over three centuries later. The enigmatic patterns of those small Celtic fields still survive in several places, most notably above Malham and Grassington.

The early years of the seventh century saw the arrival of Angle settlers, who continued a tradition of arable farming along the dales, reserving the higher, less productive ground of the valley sides for woodland and grazing. The lynchets (ridges) of their open field systems, created by ploughing with teams of oxen along the slopes of the valley sides, survived through the medieval period, and are still visible above Malham and around Clapham and Reeth. The process of sporadic settlement continued throughout the Dark Ages, as successive waves of immigration brought the Vikings, their presence reflected in place names such as Yokenthwaite, Hawkswick, Appletreewick, and indeed the word ‘dale’ itself.

The next millennium heralded the new age of the invading Normans. After he had won the day, William the Conqueror consolidated his position by beating the northern part of his kingdom into submission with a heavy and cruel hand. The overlords ruled from peripheral fortress towns such as Skipton, Richmond and Barnard Castle, exploiting the remoter reaches of the Dales as hunting forests, and establishing markets that thrived serving the larger centres of population.

During the succeeding centuries, much of the region was gradually encompassed within vast monastic estates. Fountains Abbey and the priory at Bolton Abbey became the greatest landowners, but houses such as Furness on the Cumbrian coast and Bridlington far to the east also held significant tracts of land here. Under the careful administration and watchful eyes of the abbots and priors, the farms made their money from wool, as well as growing a range of staple crops. The monasteries also exploited the mineral resources of the region, mining for coal, lead and other metals.

After the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century, ownership of much of the land eventually fell to individual freeholding farmers. By the 17th century, agricultural improvements and an expanding lead industry began to engender a climate of growing personal prosperity, and brought with it a new confidence that was translated into building in stone. It is from this era that the earliest domestic buildings survive, sturdily constructed from rough stone, with dressed blocks being reserved for corners, lintels and window openings. They reflect the local geology, in limestone, gritstone, and heavy stone flags for the roofs. Although largely utilitarian and lacking ornate decoration, individualism is nevertheless displayed in the carvings of dates and initials on lintels above doorways.

From the ruin of the Quaker Meeting House to the burial ground at East Scale (Walk 9)

Grouped in compact villages, often overlooking a green, or spread as individual farms along the valley, they are one of the endearing features of the Dales countryside. Long and narrow, the farmhouses often included an attached barn – or laithe – for the animals, and in some areas, notably Swaledale and Wensleydale, isolated barns were built in the valley fields to store summer hay and house livestock over winter.

Industry and enterprise

The relative inaccessibility of the region protected it from the burgeoning development of the Industrial Revolution, for, even though it held abundant raw materials in stone, coal and metal ore, the difficulties of transportation often rendered large-scale growth uneconomic. Yet, despite its comparatively small scale, mining and quarrying did become important local money-making activities, sometimes worked on a part-time basis to supplement income from farming. The abandoned ruins of pit-head buildings, smelters and disused quarries are to be found scattered throughout the region, often in the most inhospitable of places.

Veins of lead ore occur in the limestone throughout the eastern and northern parts of the Dales, and have been mined sporadically since the arrival of the Romans. Following the Industrial Revolution, the industry peaked during the middle 18th and early 19th centuries, but then fell into decline because of high transport costs, competition from foreign imports, and the simple fact that many seams had been worked to their economic limit. Nevertheless, over the centuries huge amounts were produced, and it has been estimated that over half a million tonnes of metallic lead have been excavated from Swaledale alone, with more than half of this coming solely from the Old Gang mines above Surrender Bridge.

Where there is lead, there is often silver too, albeit it small amounts, and the Duke of Devonshire’s Cupola Mine above Grassington produced a significant amount of silver as a by-product before it closed in 1885. In the area further west, around Malham, copper and zinc ores were also discovered, and more recently deposits of baryte and fluorspar have been worked in the Dales.

Old Gang mill (Walk 18)

Such enterprise brought with it a dramatic increase in population, attracting miners and ordinary labourers from across the country. Some came on their own, but others brought their families too, expanding the tiny villages. In Muker, for example, the new part of the village by the main lane is quite distinct from the old heart, and in many villages you will find chapels, village halls and reading rooms that all resulted from this boom. Inevitably, as the lead industry declined, the population drifted away, some heading northeast to continue their trade in the coal mines, while others went to try their hand in the textile valleys of Lancashire and west Yorkshire.

To the north and on the high ground, the Yoredale rocks contain thin seams of coal of varying quality. These were intermittently mined from the beginning of the 14th century until the railway age, often from small workings called bell pits. The coal supplied domestic needs as well as being used on a larger scale to fire smelt furnaces and lime kilns. On the bleak top of Fountains Fell, coal was even processed in an oven to produce coke, a trouble worth taking to reduce the weight of the product to be carried down the hill. Another important source of fuel both for the home and the mines was peat, cut from turbaries (places where turf or peat is dug) on the upland bogs.

All these activities have long since finished, but not so the extensive stone quarries around Horton in Ribblesdale and at Linton, which serve the chemical industry and provide aggregate for building, roads and railways. Sadly, these massive workings are a scar on the landscape, a far cry from the earlier, small-scale operations that produced stone for local building and walling, and to produce lime fertiliser. At first glance, these old, abandoned workings are now barely distinguishable from their natural backdrop, something their modern-day equivalents might find harder to achieve once they have been worked out.

Any other enterprise that developed was only ever on a limited scale. Fast-flowing streams in the main valleys powered grist and, later, other mills, with textiles becoming significant in some corners, such as Grassington and Aysgarth. Just as important was the widespread cottage textile industry, carried out in individual farms and cottages, not least to the northwest, where gloves and stockings fell off clattering needles, wielded by woman, child and man alike, in such prodigious quantities that these people become known as ‘the terrible knitters of Dent’.

The major inhibiting factor for industry was a lack of suitable transport to main industrial centres. Turnpikes through the Dales were few, and the canal age touched only the southern portals at Gargrave and Skipton. The engineering determination of the Victorians served them better, as the entrepreneurial spirit pushed the railways deep into the heart of the region, along Wensleydale and into Wharfedale.

Ambitious plans conceived for links into the lesser valleys never came to fruition, although a crowning achievement was realised in 1876 in the Settle–Carlisle line. It was forced through by the Midland Railway at great financial and human cost, ironically not to serve the Dales but to compete with existing mainline routes to Scotland. For a while, the railway sustained trade along the western fringes and into Wensleydale, enabling rapid transportation of dairy products to satisfy the markets of industrial towns. But the boom was short-lived, and now only a mineral railway track and the famous Settle–Carlisle line remain, and the latter’s future was only secured in 1989, at the end of a long and hard-fought battle after it was threatened with closure in the 1980s.

But, while railways and main roads are few, innumerable paths and tracks criss-cross the whole area. Some may have their origins in prehistoric times, others, like the Cam High Road above Bainbridge, follow the lines of Roman roads, while many more were trodden by the monks and lay workers of the great medieval abbeys and priories as they administered their far-flung estates.

Dating from pre-industrial Britain, pack-horse trails and cattle drove roads were once the main arteries of trade, while other tracks connected small settlements to market towns. Some of the tracks that appear on today’s maps now appear rather pointless, ending abruptly on the slope of a bare hillside or winding onto the moors to finish in a barren wilderness. But follow them on the ground and you will come across abandoned turbaries or disused mine and quarry workings. Other tracks, called coffin roads, served a more sombre purpose. Even if a chapel existed in an upper valley, burial rights were generally reserved to the parish churches down below, and so the dead had to be brought down for interment, as was the case in Swaledale. Indeed, there are hardly any routes you can follow in the Dales that do not have some story to tell.

The miners’ bridge across Old Gang Beck (Walk 18)

Farming in the Dales

The beauty of the Dales landscape is the product of its history, and it is one of those few places where human influence can be said to have improved upon nature, albeit unintentionally. Even the ravages left by historic mining and quarrying have faded, and the grassed-over spoil heaps, collapsed hollows and moss-grown ruined buildings have now assumed an almost natural quality.

Working life in the Dales seems to have evolved largely in accord with its environment, to create a balance that could be sustained through the passing seasons and from year to year. For example, primeval forest was originally cleared for crops and grazing, but some woodland was always retained to provide fuel and timber. And although the bare upland fells eventually returned to little more than rough grazing, they freed lower land for arable farming and the production of hay.

By and large, the farming here has always been relatively unintensive, working within the limits of the generally poor-quality land and traditional boundaries. Getting on for 5500 miles (8851km) of stone walls divide the valleys into a mosaic of small fields, and fan out up the steep hillsides to define far-reaching territories that meet along the watersheds on the high moorlands above. The walls are everywhere, except around Dentdale, where hedges prevail, and on the Howgills, where boundaries are few.

Although some walls only date back a couple of hundred years to the Enclosure Acts, a few are truly ancient, and hark back to the time of the first tentative farmers. Together with the tidy villages, compact farmsteads, isolated field barns and sporadic lime kilns, they create a built environment that has a visual harmony completely at one with its setting.

But nothing remains static, not even in a farming landscape, and change is inevitable to meet ever-evolving demands. Arable farming disappeared with the arrival of the railways in the latter part of the 19th century, when fresh food could easily be ‘imported’ from the more productive market garden areas of the country. Dairy farming, beef-cattle and sheep rearing are now the main activities, cattle predominant on the lower farms, with sheep ubiquitous elsewhere.

Out to check the sheep on Grisedale Common (Walk 9)

Indeed, so much do they reflect the character of life in the Dales that the Swaledale sheep has been adopted as the emblem of the national park. It is only such hardy breeds, with thick, dense fleeces, that are able to survive the harsh conditions and poor grazing of the upper fells, and they are generally only brought down for lambing and shearing, or when deep winter snow blankets the sparse vegetation upon which they otherwise manage to survive.

Although wool was once an important element of the local economy, that of the hill sheep is now used only for carpet manufacture, and low prices often mean that its value is less than the cost of shearing. The lambs are generally sold on to lowland farms for fattening, with the strong ewes being valued as breeding stock. On the moors, the sheep are ‘heafed’ or ‘hefted’ to the land, an instinct that keeps them within their own territory. The ewes somehow pass this instinct on to their lambs, which makes the job of the farmer immeasurably easier when it comes to rounding up the flock.

The number of sheep is determined by what the grazing can sustain. Too small and the land will become overrun with scrub, but too much will kill off the heather and denude the grass slopes. Maintaining that delicate balance over the centuries has created the open aspect of the countryside that we so value today.

Amongst the cottongrass on the slopes of Dodd Fell Hill (Walk 35)

Long before Wallace and his indefatigable companion, Grommit, revealed their attachment to Wensleydale cheese, dairy farming in the lower dales had been an important element in the local economy. Before the arrival of the railway, milk itself could only be used to supply local demand, but the coming of the railway meant that cheese and butter made on farms could be ‘exported’ for sale in distant towns, even as far away as London. Cheese is still produced in a small factory at Hawes, and although the milk trains no longer run, road tankers make the daily round of farms to supply the bottling and processing plants.

Higher up the valley, the pastures are not as rich, and cattle are bred for meat, being sold on for fattening before finally going to the butcher. Traditionally cattle were sent out to graze riverside meadows in spring before being moved onto higher pastures. During summer, the meadows were left to produce hay, the herd being brought back after the harvest to graze the late growth. Individual field barns – or laithes – removed the need to cart the hay, and meant that cattle could over-winter in the fields rather than be brought back to the farm.

Managing the meadows in this way allowed them to develop a rich herbage of spring and summer flowers, which in turn encouraged a diversity of both insects and birds. In some areas, particularly Swaledale, they are still a delight to behold, but such practices do not sit well alongside pressures to improve productivity. Reseeding and the use of fertilisers and herbicides might double the yield of grass, but the wild flowers that once grew there all but disappear within a season. Many farmers are trying to redress the balance between efficiency and environmental conservation, but the overriding concern must still be a need to earn an income.

PLANTS AND WILDLIFE

Despite human influences, the environment of the Dales supports a great diversity of habitats, whose individual characteristics are broadly governed by altitude and underlying geology.

Much of the upland is underlain by grits and other impervious rocks, and covered by wet blanket bog, where grass, sphagnum and purple moor grass pervade, with heather, bilberry and heath rush dominating where the ground is drier. Many of the better-drained upland heaths are actively managed as grouse moors, where the old growth of heather is periodically burnt off to encourage young shoots. The moors are perhaps at their most attractive during late summer, when the heather blazes in a rich swathe of purple. The limestone grasslands on the other hand are best in spring, when an amazing variety of small flowers, such as buttercup, vetch, rock rose, cranesbill and campion, speckle colour across the landscape. Small patches of woodland are also most appealing in springtime, when bluebells, ramsons and wood anemones abound.

While the limestone pavements themselves are almost devoid of vegetation, the deeper clefts between the clints offer soil, moisture and protection from grazing. Ferns are amongst the most common plants here, but very occasionally a hawthorn might just escape the attentions of sheep and reach maturity. On the floors of the dales, unimproved hay meadows contain a rich mixture of grasses, as well as an abundance of flowers, and are at their best around June. And even if you do not venture off the lanes, you will be charmed by the mass of flowers that sprout from the crevices of walls and underneath hedgerows.

Such an abundance of flowers supports many insects, of which butterflies and moths are most likely to attract attention. The relatively cool climate of the uplands precludes an abundance of species, but amongst those commonly seen are tortoiseshell, peacock, green-veined white, common blue and green hairstreak.

Birds are the most obvious wildlife throughout the dales, and even the most unobservant birdwatcher cannot help noticing them from the highest fells to the depths of the vales. Red grouse, golden plover and curlew are common across the moors, with merlin and even peregrines hunting for food. Skylarks hover high above the upland pastures, and lapwing, snipe and fieldfare are all to be found. The woodlands, too, harbour many small songbirds, and you will often hear – if not actually spot – a woodpecker. Streams and rivers attract dippers and wagtails as well as sandpipers and oystercatchers.

Apart from the rabbit, which seems to appear just about everywhere where there is grass, and the grey squirrel, which is earning for itself an increasingly bad press, other mammals are more timid and less easy to spot, although, be assured, they are very much present. Roe deer, hare, fox and badger are amongst the larger animals likely to be encountered, and occasionally the native red squirrel might be seen in woodland. The woodmouse, vole and mole are common but shy, and there are several species of bat, which are most in evidence at dusk. Frogs, toads, lizards and even adders also live in the national park.

With such a tremendous variety of landscape within a relatively small area, the Dales offers some of the most satisfying walking to be had in the whole of the country. Its thousands of miles of pathways, tracks and quiet lanes offer endless possibilities for personal exploration, whether it be in gentle riverside strolls or demanding upland treks. The area is criss-crossed by several long-distance trails, such as the Pennine Way and the Coast to Coast, and is also home to the Yorkshire ‘Three Peaks Challenge’, the 23-mile (37km) ascent of Pen-y-ghent, Whernside and Ingleborough completed in less than 12 hours. But equally, the charming villages and hamlets strung along the valley bottoms make ideal bases for both short and full-day walks. There are also many opportunities to combine a walk with a visit to one of the local attractions, such as the Wensleydale Dairy at Hawes or the museum at Reeth, or perhaps the spectacular show cave at Stump Cross, but the greatest appeal for many who come here is undoubtedly the intrinsic natural beauty of the countryside.

Rebuilding a drystone wall (Walk 33)

THE NORTHERN AND EASTERN DALES

This volume covers the northern corners of the Dales: the Howgills, Mallerstang, and the catchments of the rivers Swale, Ure and Nidd, the three coming together in the Vale of York as tributaries of Yorkshire’s greatest river, the Ouse. The Howgill Fells apart, the overall character of the area is determined by the Yoredale Series of rocks, whose layered strata of limestones, shales and sandstones foster an immense variety in both the wider topography and the diversity of vegetation. In traversing the valley sides, the different rocks and soil are reflected in the flowers, woodland and blanket bogs, as well as in the features of the landscape – outcropping scars, waterfalls, ravine-like valleys and shake holes and caves.

Mallerstang is the only valley oriented to the north, and although intimately connected in both geography and character to the Dales, like part of the Howgill Fells and Nidderdale, lies outside the national park boundary. This straight, drawn-out valley guides the infant River Eden from its source high on Lunds Fell, hardly a stone’s thrown from that of the River Ure, which runs off in completely the opposite direction. The long line of hills on either flank offers splendid, if energetic, ridge walking, and although the base of the valley is traversed by both railway and road, it engenders a distinct feeling of remoteness. Apart from The Moorcock, which in any case lies over the watershed at the head of Wensleydale, it has no pub, and as far down as Nateby, just outside Kirkby Stephen, the only habitation to be found is in a scattering of small farmsteads.

That same rugged beauty and sense of isolation is shared by the upper reaches of Swaledale, whose tributary valleys splay out to probe the bare moorland openness of the Pennines. Lower down, a string of tiny villages all trace their origins to the wave of Norse settlement in the ninth and tenth centuries, interspersed with an almost continuous string of farmsteads. The flanking hillsides are richly veined with seams of lead ore, some of which were possibly worked during the Roman period. But it was during the industrialisation of the rest of the country that the industry peaked, and hardly any worthwhile deposit was left untapped. In consequence, there are few places where you cannot find evidence of this exploitation, but strangely this only adds another dimension to the appeal of exploring the area.

Semer Water in winter, Addlebrough in the background (Walk 33)

Until it was dismantled in 1964, Wensleydale too had its railway, which ran all the way to Garsdale Head, where it connected with the Settle–Carlisle line. Although it remained in existence for less than a century, the railway was a boon to both farming and a small textile industry by providing a ready conduit for export, as well as opening the valley to the early tourism of the Victorians.

But even before that, Wensleydale had a major thoroughfare in the form of the Richmond–Lancaster turnpike, and for this reason of all the dales it is the only one to have a market town of any size in its higher reaches. In appearance too Wensleydale is different to the other dales, being broad and flat-bottomed for much of its length, where its pastures supported a much richer farming industry than was possible in the other dales. There was mining for both lead and coal as well as quarrying for stone, but these were scattered in small pockets, bringing diversity of occupation rather than the focus of an all-consuming enterprise.

Nidderdale is the one major valley that no longer has a through road, although in earlier days strings of mules and pack-horses crossed the bleak moorland pass into Coverdale. Nidderdale’s exclusion from the Yorkshire Dales National Park appears to have been because of the chain of reservoirs built to supply the expanding population of Bradford, but although something was undoubtedly lost in the flooding, few would strenuously argue that the lakes do not now bring another element of loveliness to its upper corners. With limestone gorges at its heart, stretches of luxuriant woodland beside the river, and overlooked by the striking formations of Brimham Rocks, it displays some of the greatest diversity in the whole of the Dales.

The Howgills, quite literally, stand apart from all else, a great mass of green hill rising abruptly from the deep valleys that separate them from the neighbouring high ground. The uncompromisingly steep buttressing flanks are undoubtedly a deterrent to their greater popularity, but the effort of getting to the tops is rewarded by superb panoramas and long, undulating walks on broad grassy ridges.

THE YORKSHIRE DALES NATIONAL PARK

Centred on the core of this unique area is the Yorkshire Dales National Park, created in 1954 and the seventh of the UK's national parks. The then omission of Nidderdale, Mallerstang, the Howgills and the western outlying hills was heavily criticised, for although beyond the bounds of Yorkshire, they are geologically and geographically connected and equally deserving of protection. Forty years were to pass before Nidderdale was finally designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), but it was not until August 2016 that the national park's boundaries were extended to encompass the remaining areas.

The additional areas increased the park's size by almost a quarter to 2178km² (841 square miles) to make it the country's third largest, with the Nidderdale AONB adding a further 600km² (233 square miles). Somewhat less than half of this is actively managed as agricultural land, while the rest consists largely of open country and moorland. Historic land use, geography and climate mitigate against extensive areas of woodland, and little more than 3% is covered by trees, the largest single area being the coniferous plantations encircling the higher reaches of Langstrothdale.

Because of the geology, extensive bodies of water are also notable by their absence, and in fact only two natural lakes of significance occur in the whole of the Dales – Malham Tarn and Semer Water. However, the gritstone valleys in the south and east harbour a number of man-made reservoirs, built to sustain the industrial towns of West Yorkshire.

The park's resident population is around 20,000 – less than 30 people per square mile. But this figure is swelled by an estimated 3.3 million a day, and half a million overnight visitors each year, increasing the resident population by, on average, almost a half. And while most people live in one of the three small towns lying wholly within its boundaries – Sedbergh, Hawes and Grassington – few of even the remotest dales are totally devoid of habitation. Picturesque villages and hamlets are scattered along the major valleys, with small steadings to be found everywhere, right up into the highest reaches. This all might seem like rather a lot of people, but wander away from the main centres, even on a bank holiday weekend, and you can spend a day on the tops with hardly a soul about.

Distinctive signs mark the boundary of the national park (Walk 8)

The national park takes the Swaledale as its emblem (Walk 30)

Almost all of today’s roads follow ancient lines of travel, as do many of the paths and tracks that lie away from the tarmac. There are few main roads, however, and the majority of the narrow lanes are relatively traffic free and a delight to walk, cycle or ride. In addition, there are in excess of 3200km (2000 miles) of designated footpaths, bridleways and tracks, which contour the dales, climb the intervening hills and criss-cross the open moors. And, following the implementation of the CROW Act in 2000, around 1087km² (about 420 square miles), including the majority of the upland area, is now designated open access land.

Much of the countryside encompassed within the legislation is upland moor and heath, and is identified on OS Explorer maps by peach-coloured (open land) and light-green (woodland) tints. Access points on the ground are usually identified by a circular brown-and-white symbol of a walking figure. Within these areas you have a right to wander (but not cycle), even where there is no path, but there are responsibilities too. These are generally common sense, such as following the Countryside Code (see www.openaccess.gov.uk) and being careful not to cause damage. Dogs are sometimes permitted too, but should be on a close lead near livestock and during the bird-breeding season (1 March to 31 July). However, on many of the grouse moors dogs are not allowed at any time other than on designated public footpaths. Landowners are entitled to suspend or restrict access for short periods, for example during the grouse-shooting season or while heather and gorse burning takes place. There may also be restrictions for conservation purposes. Such closures are notified in advance and should be respected, but do not affect any public rights of way that may run across the land.

PRACTICALITIES

Although none of the routes described in this book is technically demanding, many venture onto upland moors where paths may be vague or non-existent, and conditions can be very different from those in the valleys. The weather can rapidly deteriorate at any time of year, and inexperienced walkers should be aware that it is easy to become disorientated in mist. However, taking a few simple and common-sense precautions will help ensure you get the best out of the day.

Navigation and maps

Take heed of any warning signs (Walk 9)

The mapping extracts (1:50,000) accompanying each walk in this guidebook are provided to indicate the general outline of the route and are not intended as a substitute for the map itself. The context of the wider area will not only add to the enjoyment of identifying neighbouring hills and other features, but is vital should you wander off course or need to find a quick way back.

On the open moors and hills, paths may be indistinct or non-existent and, particularly in poor visibility, the terrain may pose navigational problems for inexperienced walkers. You should therefore be competent in the use of map and compass and, while a GPS receiver can be a useful additional aid, you should know how to use it and be aware of its shortcomings. Remember, too, to carry spare batteries. Be aware of your limitations, and do not start out if anticipated conditions are likely to be beyond your experience, and should the weather deteriorate unexpectedly, always be prepared turn back.

The area is covered by Ordnance Survey maps at both 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scales, the larger scale showing a greater detail that is often invaluable. The key maps for the walks in this guide are: Explorer OL2 – Yorkshire Dales (Southern & Western areas); Explorer OL30 – Yorkshire Dales (Northern & Central areas); Explorer OL19 – Howgill Fells & Upper Eden Valley; and Explorer 298 – Nidderdale.

Careful planning

Plan your walk in advance, bearing in mind your party’s capabilities and the anticipated weather conditions for the day. The times given in this guidebook for each walk are based on Naismith’s Rule, and are provided merely as a guide. They make no allowance for stops along the way, and in practice your time may be significantly greater, since it will depend on your level of fitness, ability to cope with the particular terrain, and other factors such as weather.

The amount of height gain, poor conditions underfoot and lousy weather can add considerably to both the time and effort needed to complete a walk, and it is a good idea to make your own estimate, adapting Naismith’s Rule to match your own performance. Naismith’s Rule basically takes into account distance and height gain, allowing one hour for every 5km (3 miles) and a further half hour for each 300m ascended. By monitoring your own performance over a period to determine appropriate personal times for each element of the calculation, you can achieve a reasonably reliable formula that suits your own level of capability. Having said that, particularly if you are out alone, it is also a good idea to leave a note of your intended route and return time with someone (not sitting on the dashboard of your car as an open invitation to a thief).

Clothing and footwear

Wear appropriate clothing and footwear and carry a comfortable rucksack. The variability of British weather can pack all four seasons into a single day – sun, rain, wind and snow – with the temperature bobbing up and down like a yo-yo. All this makes deciding what to wear for a day on the hills potentially more difficult than choosing an outfit for a wedding. The comprehensive advice is to be prepared for everything, and with today’s technical fabrics, this is not as daft as it may seem.

Lightweight jackets and trousers can be both effectively wind- and waterproof without being too cumbersome should the weather improve. Efficient underlayers wick away the damp to keep you warm and dry, and throwing in a fleece takes up little extra room. Good-quality socks will help keep feet comfortable and warm, and don’t forget gloves and a hat. In summer, a sun hat and sunscreen lotion offer necessary protection against UV, but shorts aren’t always a good idea, particularly where there are nettles and brambles.

Whether you choose leather or fabric boots is a matter of personal preference, but you should ensure that they are waterproof rather than merely water resistant. They should, of course, be comfortable, as well as offering good ankle support and grip underfoot. Finally, note that mobile phone coverage is at best patchy.

Food and drink

A number of these walks take you past a pub or a café at some stage, but if you intend to rely on them for a snack or meal, do check in advance that they will be open. It is, in any case, always advisable to pack emergency rations, in case your walk takes longer than anticipated. Also carry plenty to drink, particularly when the weather is warmer, as dehydration can be a significant problem. Drinking from streams is not always a good idea, and in limestone country they can be something of a rarity in any case.

Taking your car

If you travel to the start of the walk by car, remember that the roads, never intended for today’s traffic volumes, are generally narrow, have many bends and several very steep hills. Extra care is also needed because slow-moving farm vehicles, animals, pedestrians, horse riders and cyclists may lie around any corner. And, while you might be enjoying a leisurely drive soaking up the beauty of the countryside, the car behind could contain a local just going about his daily business, so be a courteous driver and pull over as soon as it is convenient to allow faster-moving traffic to safely pass.

Wherever possible, use official car parks. This helps to reduce congestion, avoid obstruction and protect verges, and gives a measure of protection against car crime. The revenue from national park car parks is used to improve services for visitors to the park. If there is no car park available, please park considerately, and ensure that you do not obstruct field or farm access or cause damage.

Leaving your car behind

However, leaving the car behind not only helps the environment, but opens a wealth of other opportunities for your visit. Instead of confining yourself to circular walks, which most of us accept as the norm for a day out, you can broaden your horizons in walking from one dale to the next. Combined with an overnight stay or two you can truly become a traveller, and begin to appreciate the relationships between the different valleys. The Dales offers several real alternatives to using the car. There is a frequent rail service along the Settle–Carlisle line serving the upper Ribble Valley, Dent Head and Garsdale. Regular bus services run into most of the popular dales, with additional services at weekends and during the summer. Full details are available from the Travel Dales website (www.yorkshiredales.org.uk/visit-the-dales/essential-information/travel).

Cycling is another environmentally friendly way of getting about. Take your own bike, perhaps leaving the car at one of the fringe car parks, or hire one when you get there. You will find useful information on the Cycle the Yorkshire Dales website (www.cyclethedales.org.uk).

Narrow lanes and a tractor leave little room for walkers (Walk 16)

A Norman stronghold, Castlehaw was built around 1070 to control passage along the valley of the Rawthey (Walk 1)

If you have the time, spend a couple of relaxing days in the area rather than stressfully travelling back and forth on day visits. There is a wealth of inviting bed and breakfast, hotel and inn accommodation, as well as campsites, and the area has a wonderful reputation for its food. Check out www.yorkshiredales.org/accommodation.

USING THIS GUIDE

The walks in this guidebook are for everyone, from novices to experienced ramblers, although newcomers to walking are advised to develop their abilities and confidence on the shorter walks before progressing onto the more demanding routes. However, none of the walks in this book is technically difficult, and in good weather they pose few navigational problems. Simple skills such as the ability to use a map and compass will help keep you on the right track, and map and compass are essential in poor visibility.

The network of public footpaths and tracks is extensive, and signposts and waymarks are generally well positioned to confirm the route. On the upper moors, and indeed across many of the valley meadows, the actual line of the path is not always distinct, but the way is often discernible along a ‘trod’. Defined as a ‘mark made by treading’, a trod, by its nature, becomes more obvious the more it is walked, and indeed may develop over time as a path. But on the upper slopes it is a less tangible thing, a slight flattening of the grass or reeds punctuated with an occasional boot print. It may differ from a sheep track only in that it has purposeful direction and requires an element of concentration to stay on the right course.

The walks described in detail in this volume range in distance from 3½ to 11½ miles (5.6 to 18.5km), and there are suggestions for devising longer days by combining routes. While the lengthier walks require an appropriate degree of physical fitness, none demand more than an ability to walk. The Dales are hilly rather than mountainous, and with gains in altitude during the walks of between 80m (262ft) and 855m (2805ft), climbs are generally moderate, with any steep sections usually brief. And in any case, the captivating scenery so begs attention that frequent pauses for retrospective admiration are almost mandatory.

Almost all of the walks are circular, many beginning from recognised car parks with a public toilet nearby. However, public transport in the Dales, particularly during the summer months and at weekends, now offers a real alternative for reaching many of the more popular locations, and increases the opportunity for adapting and devising many satisfying ‘one way’ walks around the routes described here.

Yorkshire’s warm hospitality is renowned, and you’ll find welcoming pubs, cafés and tea shops throughout the area, although it is always a good idea to check opening times in advance if you are relying on somewhere for a meal.

Details of the terrain and nature of the walk, together with the local facilities available, are given in the information box at the start of each walk.