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According to many psychologists and educators, the taxonomy of microaggressions has revolutionized the way we think about prejudice and discrimination. Since the publication of “Racial Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Implications for Clinical Practice” (Sue, Capodilupo, et al., 2007) and of Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Race, Gender and Sexual Orientation (Sue, 2010), there have been over 20,000 publications on the topic (Google Scholar, October 2018). The journal article and book have generated a multitude of research studies, conceptual/analytical models, case studies, anecdotal reports, and editorial/opinion pieces. This current edition was guided by the most up‐to‐date research findings on microaggressions, resulting in what we hope will become an equally important and groundbreaking standard for the field. The new features/topics of Microaggressions in Everyday Life, Second Edition are discussed next.

The majority of work on microaggressions has focused on how they detrimentally harm target populations. In this new edition, we devote Chapter 6 to how macrolevel systems of dominance and oppression affect the microlevel psyche and behavior of perpetrators or offenders. Interestingly, very little research has focused on understanding those who commit microaggressions. Thus, we address several important questions: Who are microaggressive perpetrators? How and why do individuals perpetrate microaggressions? What makes it so difficult for perpetrators to recognize their role in the transmission of microaggressions? What are the costs of microaggressions to those who perpetrate them? This last question is unique and important because most discussions of perpetrators emphasize power, privilege, and the advantages that accrue to dominant‐group members who engage in oppressive acts. We show, however, that research reveals microaggressors experience a multitude of psychosocial costs (emotional, behavioral, spiritual, and moral) that deplete their humanity.

Second, we also introduce a completely new concept in this edition that we label microinterventions. In our work with microaggressions, we have repeatedly asked how people can effectively fight against expressions of bias. In Chapter 10 we review the literature and findings on antibias actions and develop a conceptual framework of strategies (microinterventions)—a repertoire of responses used to directly disarm or counteract the effects of micro‐ and macroaggressions by challenging perpetrators who deliver interpersonal slights and persons in authority who operate under biased policies or practices. In this chapter we describe the potential antiracist actions of three major groups—targets, allies, and bystanders—in their struggle against racism. We believe these constituents must take a proactive stance against the discriminatory actions of perpetrators. Drawing from research studies, we extract guiding principles and provide suggestions, strategies, and interventions that disrupt, diminish, or terminate prejudice and discrimination at the individual level. We also address the need for scholars and practitioners to develop antiracist microintervention strategies directed at biased institutional programs and practices and toward biased societal social policies as well.

Third, another major addition to the book is Chapter 7, “Researching Microaggressions: Show Me the Evidence,” and our stance that there are multiple ways to ask and answer questions about the human condition, especially in the study of microaggressions. Unlike some scholars who minimize the importance of experiential reality and targets’ perspectives, we believe that methodological diversity is necessary and must involve to some degree people's lived experiences. We provide a historical look at how the study of microaggressions has evolved over the years; the advantages and disadvantages of specific research strategies; and a description of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies used to portray a more comprehensive picture of the nature, manifestation, expression, and impact of microaggressions and how these aspects vary for different groups in different contexts. Of special relevance to future researchers, we provide an overview of more than a dozen microaggression scales commonly used to research these forms of bias.

Fourth, throughout the book we distinguish between the usage of the terms “microaggressions” and “macroaggressions.” In our earlier formulation of microaggression theory, we concentrated primarily on microassaults, microinsults, and microinvalidations. This led to confusion when some in the public began to use the term “macroaggressions” to indicate the immense harm that often resulted from a microaggression. Unlike microaggressions, which are situated in microlevel interpersonal contexts, macroaggressions affect whole groups or classes of people because they are systemic in nature. Further, microaggressions reside in the beliefs and attitudes of individuals, while macroaggressions reside in the programs, policies, and practices of institutions and society. Disarming or counteracting microaggressions refers to neutralizing bigotry among individuals, whereas combating macroaggressions refers to changing the policies and practices of organizations and institutions that deny equal access and opportunity for all.

Fifth, being both educators and mental health practitioners, we introduce two completely revised chapters: Chapter 8, “Teaching About Microaggressions,” which has implications for educators, and Chapter 9, “Microaggressions in Counseling and Psychotherapy.” As it is nearly impossible to separate the practice of teaching about microaggressions from the dynamics of encountering microaggressions in the classroom, in Chapter 8 we focus on teaching about microaggressions as well as using teachable moments effectively when microaggressions occur in our classrooms. In Chapter 9 we underscore how clients’ presenting concerns may be related to microaggressive harm in their everyday lives. We also emphasize how well‐intentioned helping professionals unknowingly commit harmful microaggressions toward their clients in the therapeutic context, which is especially concerning because clients seek therapy to resolve problems. Culturally insensitive therapeutic practice can lead to secondary trauma, especially among clients who experience multiple microaggressions in their everyday lives. If microaggressions are not addressed in therapy or, worse yet, if a therapist commits microaggressions during a session, clients may never receive the help they need. In this chapter we describe briefly mental health disparities in terms of underutilization, premature termination, and quality of care. We also review cutting‐edge counseling process and outcomes research that investigates microaggressions in the therapy context.

Microaggressions in Everyday Life, Second Edition is divided into four major sections.

Section One—Psychological Manifestation and Dynamics of Microaggressions is composed of three chapters that provide the conceptual framework of microaggression theory and explicate, via research, the manifestation, dynamics, and impact of microaggressions across a broad spectrum of marginalized group members.

Chapter 1—Microaggressions as Toxic Rain: Here, There and Everywhere!

 What Are Microaggressions?

 Racial MicroaggressionsThe Invisibility and Nebulous Nature of Everyday Racism

 Gender Microaggressions

 Sexual‐Orientation Microaggressions

 Misunderstanding MicroaggressionsStop Making Mountains Out of Molehills!Everything’s a Microaggression in This Climate of Political CorrectnessYour Analysis Is Flawed

 Microaggressions, Marginality, and Harmful Impact

 The Way Forward: Making the “Invisible” Visible

Chapter 2—Taxonomy of Microaggressions

 Conscious and Deliberate Bigotry versus Unconscious and Unintentional BiasThe Changing Face of Racism, Sexism, and HeterosexismMicroaggressions

 Environmental Macroaggressions

 Forms of MicroaggressionsMicroassults

 Microinsults and Microinvalidations: Common ThemesMicroinsultsMicroinvalidations

 The Way Forward: Defining, Recognizing, and Deconstructing Hidden Messages in Microaggressions

Chapter 3—The Psychological Dilemmas and Dynamics of Microaggressions

 Clash of Racial Realities: “You Are Just Being Hypersensitive and Misreading the Situation!”

 Invisibility of Unintentional Biases: “I'm Not a Racist!”

 Perceived Minimal Harm of Microaggressions: “Don't Make a Mountain Out of a Molehill!”

 The Catch‐22 of Responding to Microaggressions: “You're Damned if You Do and Damned if You Don't!”

 The Way Forward: Dealing with Psychological Dilemmas

Section Two—Microaggressive Impact on Targets and Perpetrators is composed of three chapters. In this section, we provide a model to understand the internal struggle of microaggression recipients, and the harm it has on their physical and mental well‐being. Quite new is our chapter on microaggressive perpetrators and the unique analysis of the impact that microaggressions have upon them.

Chapter 4—The Microaggression Process Model: The Internal Struggle of Targets

 Tracing the Impact of MicroaggressionsPhase One—The Potential Microaggressive Incident or EventPhase Two—Initial Assessment and Questioning of the IncidentPhase Three—Reaction ProcessesPhase Four—Interpretation and MeaningPhase Five—Consequences and Impact

 The Microaggression Process Model: Recap

 The Way Forward: Strength through Adversity

Chapter 5—Microaggressive Stress: Impact on Physical and Psychological Well‐Being

 Biological Stressors: A Roadmap to Understanding Microaggressive Harm

 Psychological and Social StressorsMicroaggressions and Daily HasslesImpact of Everyday HasslesThe Life‐Change Model of StressThe Transactional Model of StressSituating Stress in the Macro‐Context of Oppression

 The Harmful Effects of Microaggressive StressPhysical Health Effects of Microaggressive StressorsPsychological Health Effects of Microaggressive Stressors

 Strength through Adversity

 The Way Forward: Responding Strategically and Resisting Microaggressions

Chapter 6—Microaggressive Perpetrators: Who, What, When, How, and Why?

 Who Are Microaggressive Perpetrators?

 How and Why Do Individuals Perpetrate Microaggressions?Using the Tools: Creating and Maintaining DominancePower to Impose a Biased Reality

 What Makes It So Difficult for Perpetrators to Recognize Their Privilege?Layer One—Fear of Appearing BiasedLayer Two—Fear of Recognizing One's Complicity in OppressionLayer Three—Fear of Acknowledging One's PrivilegeLayer Four—Fear of Taking Personal Responsibility to End Oppression

 What Are the Costs of Microaggressions to Perpetrators?Cognitive Costs of OppressionEmotional Costs of OppressionBehavioral Costs of OppressionSpiritual and Moral Costs of Oppression

 The Way Forward: The Ethical Mandate

Section Three—Interrogating Microaggressions: On Research, Teaching, and Counseling is composed of three chapters. In this section, we discuss microaggressions from three different perspectives: (a) what has microaggression research revealed and how research methodologies can be used to study the phenomena, (b) how educators need to be cognizant of addressing and teaching about microaggressions, and (c) what mental health professionals need to address in their own personal awakening about microaggressions, and in the quality care of services delivered to culturally diverse clients.

Chapter 7—Researching Microaggressions: Show Me the Evidence!

 In Their Own Words: Qualitative Investigation of MicroaggressionsPurposive SamplesFocus GroupsIndividual InterviewsOther Data SourcesTrustworthiness

 Do Findings Generalize? Quantitative Investigation of MicroaggressionsMeasuring MicroaggressionsQuantitative Research Designs

 Summary

 The Way Forward: Future Research Directions

Chapter 8—Teaching About Microaggressions

 Faculty Narratives: Facing Challenges in the ClassroomChallenges Faculty Members of Color FaceChallenges White Faculty Members Face

 Encountering Microaggressions in the Classroom

 Navigating Microaggressions: What Can Educators Do?

 Microaggressions Pedagogy: How to Teach about Microaggressions

 The Way Forward: General Strategies for Facilitating Difficult Dialogues on Race

Chapter 9—Microaggressions in Counseling and Psychotherapy

 Underutilization of Mental Health Services

 Premature Termination and Quality of Mental Health Care

 Multicultural Counseling Competence

 Manifestation of Racial Microaggressions in Counseling and Psychotherapy

 Microaggressions Influence Counseling Process and OutcomesInnovative Research Approaches

 The Way Forward: Microaggressions Implications for Practice and Research

Section Four—Disarming Microaggressions and Macroaggressions is composed of one chapter. It is a fitting end to the book, because it directly addresses what targets, allies, and bystanders can do to disarm or neutralize microaggressions.

Chapter 10—Microintervention Strategies for Disarming Microaggressions and Macroaggressions

 Microaggressions and Macroaggressions

 The Need to Take Action: Targets, Allies, and BystandersTargetsAlliesBystanders

 Responding to Microaggressions and Macroaggressions

 MicrointerventionsStrategic Goal: Make the “Invisible” VisibleStrategic Goal: Disarm the MicroaggressionStrategic Goal: Educate the PerpetratorStrategic Goal: Seek External Intervention or Support

 Microinterventions and Macroaggressions

 Context Matters

 The Way Forward: Microinterventions and the New Research Frontier

It is important to note that a major goal of the text is to present research data, theory, and practical suggestions on how to overcome microaggressions that target members of marginalized groups and to make specific suggestions related to how microaggressions can be ameliorated at individual, institutional, and societal levels. To further emphasize remedial and preventive interventions, we updated the special concluding sections in each chapter, “The Way Forward,” to provide guidelines, strategies, and interventions that readers can enact to reduce the frequency and impact of microaggressions in our society. We also devote an entire chapter (Chapter 10) to offer readers a conceptual framework and specific microintervention tactics.

In closing, we would like to personally acknowledge our family and partners for their encouragement, support, and help throughout this project. Derald Wing Sue would like to dedicate this book to his wife, Paulina, his son Derald Paul and wife Claire, granddaughters Caroline and Juliette, his daughter Marissa Catherine and husband Neal, and grandsons Niam and Kiran. Lisa B. Spanierman would like to dedicate this book to Tony Clark for his unwavering support, her parents, Brenda and Ron, and her sister, Dana. She would also like to thank Jorge Ballesteros, Shelby Messerschmitt‐Coen, and Jackson Liguori for their helpful research assistance.

Derald Wing Sue

Lisa Beth Spanierman

July 2019