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Testing of Jesus (4:1–13)

We are accustomed to viewing Jesus’ encounters with the devil as temptations. It is as appropriate to consider them as tests. Whereas Luke presents three incidents in which Jesus is tempted by the devil, the broader interpretive canvas is the preparation of the Messiah (3:21—4:13). By placing the accounts of Jesus’ baptism, genealogy, and testing one after the other, Luke attends to the identity, legitimacy, empowerment, and training of the Son of God before his public ministry begins in earnest. The Greek verb peirazō can mean “to test” or “to tempt,” leaving room for competing perspectives. Accordingly, the noun peirasmos can be translated as “test,” “trial,” or “temptation.” God puts his Son’s fidelity and obedience to the test by allowing the devil to present these tests as temptations.

In the OT, tempting and testing appear in various shades of meaning, depending on the context. God tested the faith and obedience of his people, as with Abraham in the command to sacrifice his son Isaac (Gen 22:1–19). He tested the Israelites through their need for sustenance while sojourning in the wilderness (Exod 16:4; 20:20). On the flip side, the Israelites were chided for testing God by not trusting in his provision (Exod 17:2; Ps 95:8–10). Then there was the serpent who tempted Adam and Eve to eat the forbidden fruit (Gen 3:1–19). Unequivocally, tests and trials from God are seen as positive and instructive, whereas temptations from the devil or from human beings are suspect.

Taken out of the narrative context of Luke 3–4, one might suggest that these three vignettes present Jesus’ response as a model for fending off temptations, as though citing choice Bible verses would send the devil running. A deep knowledge of Scripture is certainly helpful in the face of temptations of any sort, but this interpretation is superficial. Jesus is engaged in a serious battle with the devil, not a Scripture-quoting contest. Seeing this account only as Jesus’ identification with believers who face temptation in daily life misses the key themes in Luke’s theological ruminations surrounding Jesus’ divine sonship and messianic kingship. Now that Jesus has been filled with the Holy Spirit and commissioned as Israel’s Messiah (3:21–22), he must demonstrate his unwavering fidelity to his Father’s purposes, to make good on his claim that he must be about his Father’s business (2:49).

The setting of the first test/temptation is replete with allusions to the exodus. First, Jesus is the Son of God, but so is Israel in a metaphorical sense (Exod 4:22–23; Hos 11:1). The father-son relationship expects fidelity from Jesus and Israel alike. Second, just as the Israelites were led by God in the wilderness for their humbling and testing (Deut 8:2), Jesus, “full of the Holy Spirit,” is “led (ēgeto) by the Holy Spirit in the wilderness” (4:1). The double mention of the Holy Spirit underscores Jesus’ empowerment and access to divine help. The passive imperfect verb, ēgeto, conveys a continual sense of the Spirit’s presence, leading and guiding Jesus throughout this time, rather than simply bringing him to the place of testing and leaving him there to fend for himself. Third, Jesus’ forty days in the wilderness parallel Israel’s forty years of wandering (Neh 9:21; Amos 2:10). Fourth, the nature of all three tests/temptations and Jesus’ responses take us back to specific experiences of Israel in their desert wanderings. Where Israel failed, Jesus prevails and shows himself worthy of the dual roles as the faithful representative of God before Israel and the obedient leader of Israel before God.

The first temptation involves the exploitation of privileges that come with divine sonship. Jesus has not eaten for forty days (4:2). Fasting and prayer put a person in an open posture before God, but by the end of this period Jesus is very hungry and the devil finds an opportunity to exploit this point of weakness. His opening bid, “if you are the Son of God” (4:3; also 4:9), does not express doubt but challenge. Neither Jesus nor the devil disputes the reality of Jesus’ divine sonship. Based on this status, the devil asks, “Since you are the Son of God, why don’t you take advantage of your authority and command this stone to become a loaf of bread? Come on, you are hungry, and your Father has given you the ability to solve this simple problem. What are you waiting for?”

Jesus’ reply hearkens back to Israel’s experience in the wilderness when the people were hungry and pining for the delicacies of Egypt (Exod 16:3). Jesus rejects Israel’s distrustful attitude with a retort, “One does not live by bread alone” (4:4). This quotation, taken from Deuteronomy 8, addresses not only why God allowed hunger to set in but where true sustenance must come from: “He humbled you by letting you hunger, then by feeding you with manna, . . . in order to make you understand that one does not live by bread alone, but by every word that comes from the mouth of the lord” (Deut 8:3). The backdrop of the wilderness wanderings underscores the humility required of Israel, and now of Jesus, to trust that God is dependable and will feed his children (cf. 11:3; 12:22–24). The Son of God will not assuage the desires of his belly by his own means even if he has the power to do so. He chooses to depend on his Father’s provision, given by God’s initiative and in God’s timing.

The devil next shows Jesus a bird’s-eye view of “all the kingdoms of the world” (4:5). While no such place actually exists to provide a panoramic vista of this extent, the picture signifies the culmination of all earthly power and authority. The devil purports that he has been given authority over the entire world, therefore he has the right to give it away as he pleases. On that basis he demands homage in exchange for glory and power (4:6–7). Is the devil lying or does he, being the prince of darkness, really hold sway over the affairs of this world?

Jesus’ rebuttal gets at the heart of the matter: “Worship the Lord your God, and serve only him” (4:8; cf. Deut 6:13). In the OT, Israel repeatedly failed to worship YHWH alone, beginning with the wilderness generation that worshiped the golden calf to subsequent generations drawn to the gods of the Canaanites.107 Yet Jesus’ citation comes at the heels of the Shema, commanding Israel to love YHWH, the only God, with all its heart, soul, and might (Deut 6:4–5). God’s people must never bow down before other gods (Exod 20:2–3; Deut 6:13–14). The devil’s temptation strikes at this fundamental loyalty concerning what it means to be the people of God and, above all, the Son of God. Moreover, in Psalm 2, after the affirmation, “You are my Son,” (Ps 2:7; cf. Luke 3:22), God continues, “Ask of me, and I will make the nations your heritage, and the ends of the earth your possession” (Ps 2:8). Jesus’ status as the divine Son already entitles him to have authority over all powers, given to him as his inheritance. He does not have to resort to inferior means to grasp that which is rightfully his.

The final temptation takes place at the highest point of the temple in Jerusalem (4:9). The devil uses Ps 91:11–12 to goad Jesus to make God prove his protective care. Jumping from the pinnacle of the temple will create a life-threatening spectacle. Attempting to sow a seed of doubt in Jesus, the devil says, “See if God will really keep his word and rescue you. Make him prove it.” Once more, Jesus replies, “Do not put the Lord your God to the test” (4:12; cf. Deut 6:16a). His answer deftly combats this temptation, but also recalls the sad history of how the Israelites did indeed put God to the test at Massah when they had no water to drink (Deut 6:16b; cf. Exod 17:1–7).

All three temptations take aim at Jesus’ trust in God and fidelity to God. The devil strikes at Jesus’ understanding of his divine sonship, but with every victory Jesus also redeems Israel’s past failure as recalcitrant children of God. The devil temporarily concedes his failure and withdraws “until an opportune time” (4:13). That time will present itself in the passion narrative when the power of darkness will attack in full force (22:3, 31, 53; 23:44–46). Just as the Holy Spirit continues to empower Jesus throughout his ministry, the devil will keep obstructing Jesus by oppressing people with unclean spirits and crippling diseases.108 By resisting these temptations, Jesus has also passed three tests and demonstrated total allegiance to and dependence on his Father. The Messiah is now ready for action.

Sermon at Nazareth (4:14–30)

With the completion of the time of preparation, Jesus returns to Galilee “in the power of the Spirit” (4:14; cf. 1:35; 3:23; 4:1). As Jesus begins his mission, his teaching activities in the synagogues place him in good repute throughout Galilee (4:14–15). Despite the people’s positive opinions of Jesus, they are far from understanding his status and the substance of his teachings. The general acclaim in this summative statement will contrast sharply with the rejection Jesus will face. The words that Simeon spoke to Mary when Jesus was presented at the temple, that “[her] child is . . . to be a sign that will be opposed” (2:34–35), will soon materialize.

Nazareth of Galilee was a poor, insignificant village with an estimated population of barely a few hundred. Nothing much was found in its excavations—no public building, no fine pottery, no paved street, no inscription—that might justify a different impression.109 In the first century, the Jews would gather for prayer and Scripture reading on the Sabbath in a synagogue. If the village was too small to have its own synagogue, a home was used. A typical service would begin with the recitation of the Shema (Deut 6:4–9) and other set prayers, followed by readings from the Torah and the Prophets, a sermon, and a prayer to close.110

Jesus, the son of law-abiding parents (2:22–23, 39, 41), has the habit of going to the synagogue on the Sabbath (4:16). As he is about to read Scripture, the narrative time is slowed down considerably. The chiastic structure of the ensuing verses describing Jesus’ actions moves the reader toward the quotation from Isaiah, and then all the way back until Jesus sits down (4:16–20):

Jesus stood up to read (16c)

The scroll was given to him (17a)

He unrolled the scroll (17b)

He read from Isaiah (18–19)

He rolled up the scroll (20a)

He gave the scroll back to the attendant (20b)

He sat down (20c)

The quotation from Isaiah, handpicked by Jesus to read, sits at the focal point of the chiasm (4:18–19). Segments of Isa 61:1–2 and 58:6 may be found in the composite quotation in 4:18–19. Aside from the glaring omission of the phrase, “the day of vengeance of our God” (Isa 61:2b), Jesus’ reading captures the positive manifestations of “the year of the lord’s favor.” It is not that God’s final judgment is taken lightly, but the emphasis here is on the good news for “the poor” who are willing to receive it. In Luke “the poor” are not limited to those who are economically poor, such as peasants, slaves, beggars, and day laborers. Others viewed by their contemporaries as having low status are also considered to be “poor”—children, barren women, widows, gentiles, tax collectors, sinners, the demon possessed, and those with physical deformities and diseases. Some are relegated to a low status because of their age, gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status; others due to moral and ritual impurity. In verse 19 the captives, the blind, and the oppressed constitute “the poor” to whom Jesus brings the good news of the kingdom of God.

The news is good because “the poor” will experience a reversal of conditions: the captives will be released, the blind will see, the oppressed will go free (4:18). This list is illustrative, not exhaustive. Jesus’ reading of Isaiah puts the spotlight on the theme of reversal already introduced in Mary’s song (1:51–53). This note will be repeatedly sounded as the narrative proceeds (6:20–26; 7:21–22; 16:19–31). Behind the quotations from Isaiah lies the OT concept of Jubilee. Every fifty years, Israel was to “proclaim liberty throughout the land to all its inhabitants” (Lev 25:10–17). In the year of Jubilee, the Jews were to leave the land fallow, set their slaves free, and forgive all debts. Although the Israelites never properly observed the year of the Jubilee, this image is evoked in later Jewish writings to describe the ideal conditions at the time of God’s final salvation.111

But Jesus is more than a social reformer; his ability to reverse a person’s situation goes far beyond writing off a debt or manumitting a slave. In conjunction with release and reversal on the physical and socio-economic level, Jesus effects spiritual renewal that reconciles the penitent to God through the forgiveness of sins (cf. 5:17–26; 7:36–50). Those who claim high social status by human standards can still find themselves in spiritual poverty, rendering them in dire need of salvation like everyone else (cf. 3:7–9).

Where does Jesus see himself in this depiction of the eschatological Jubilee? In Isa 61:1, the one anointed by the Spirit is God’s prophet and servant. Reading the passage alone does not necessarily draw an immediate link between this figure in Isaiah, his message, and Jesus. But when Jesus sits down, assuming the posture of a teacher, he declares, “Today (sēmeron) this Scripture has been fulfilled in your hearing” (4:20–21). He claims that the future hope of the Jews is now present reality. The identification of Jesus with the Isaianic prophet may not be immediately apparent to those sitting in the synagogue at Nazareth, but the same Spirit who descended upon Jesus at his baptism (3:22) and led him through the tests in the wilderness (4:1, 14) now anoints Jesus as God’s end-time prophet that inaugurates God’s eschatological Jubilee here and now. The Greek word, sēmeron (“today”) is more than a reference to that particular day in Nazareth (4:21). It is a catchword in Luke to denote the immediacy of God’s salvation (2:11; 5:26; 19:9; 23:43). Jesus is making a bold claim that the salvation hoped for by generations of Israelites has arrived and he is the Spirit-anointed agent through whom all forms of oppression will be lifted.

At first “all spoke well of him” (4:22a), but by the end of the pericope, “all were filled with rage” (4:28). What causes the crowd’s response to swing from one side of the pendulum to the other? Initially, the villagers are impressed and receive Jesus’ words as words of grace. They hear the message as spoken for them, that they are the beneficiaries of God’s redemption. Without the tone, it is difficult to determine the attitude behind the ensuing question, “Isn’t this Joseph’s son?” (4:22b; cf. 3:23). Does this question ride on the momentum of the people’s amazement or is it a sign of doubt? On the one hand, Jesus enjoyed divine and human favor while growing up (2:52), so his reputation must have been quite good. It is possible to interpret the question as a sense of hometown pride: “Isn’t this Joseph’s son? Look how well he has turned out!” On the other hand, the question may betray a tinge of contempt. According to Mark, not only do they claim to know Jesus’ father, but also his mother and siblings, “and they took offense at him” (Mark 6:2–3). Are they mumbling to themselves, “Who does he think he is? How dare he make such a claim?” Some ambiguity remains as to when the shift in the public sentiment toward Jesus begins. Regardless of whether Jesus’ familial background is used as a basis for parochial pride or a reason for skepticism, what he says next is bound to ignite a negative reaction from those who have yet to embrace his mission.

Having read their minds, Jesus reveals what the villagers were thinking, “Doctor, cure yourself! . . . Do here also in your hometown the things we have heard you did in Capernaum” (4:23). One might read the idiom as a challenge to walk one’s talk: “If you are telling us what to do then you should do so yourself.” A different take on the proverb reflects a provincial mindset: “If you have any benefit to offer, start with your own kinsfolk.” The latter sense fits the current context better, given the reference to the deeds that Jesus has already performed in nearby Capernaum. Coupled with their view that Jesus is merely Joseph’s son, they may be seeking a sign, at least implicitly, to validate his prophetic utterance.

Only at this point does Jesus identify himself with the Isaianic figure: “No prophet is accepted in the prophet’s hometown” (4:24; cf. Mark 6:4; Matt 13:57). Because Israel had a track record of rejecting God’s prophets, Jesus is comparing his contemporaries with their forebears and indicting them for their hardness of heart. In the rest of the narrative, Luke will continue to present Jesus as a rejected prophet whose message of salvation will fall on deaf ears again and again (11:47–50; 13:33–34; 20:9–19).

Specifically, Jesus alludes to Elijah and Elisha to illustrate that God’s mercy is broad enough to embrace outsiders (4:25–27). At the time of King Ahab and his wife Jezebel, severe drought struck the land when God punished Israel for its idolatry and wickedness. Elijah was sent to Zarephath to the home of a Sidonian widow and her son. Through God’s miraculous provision, Elijah, the woman, and her son survived because their meal and oil never ran out. When the widow’s son died, Elijah prayed and brought him back to life (1 Kgs 17:8–24). Elisha ordered Naaman the commander of the King of Aram to wash seven times in the Jordan to cleanse his flesh from leprosy (2 Kgs 5:1–14). Common to Elijah’s and Elisha’s stories was their mission to those despised by reason of their gender (woman), marital status (widowed), gentile origin (Sidonian and Syrian), and physical deformity (leper). It was not as though Elijah and Elisha did not help their fellow Israelites, but Jesus emphasizes that even with the needy among Israel, God chose to send his prophets to those of even lower status—a gentile widow and a gentile leper. Indeed, God’s grace extends beyond the boundaries of Israel, a lesson so difficult for Jesus’ compatriots to learn.

Because Jesus is their homegrown son, the people of Nazareth expect him to privilege them over others, especially their neighbors in Capernaum.112 Is this too much to ask? Isn’t Nazareth a poor village that needs relief from oppression? Shouldn’t Jesus’ relatives and friends be first in line to receive God’s blessings? If the people interpret Jesus as casting his sights on unclean and lowly outsiders instead of on them, no wonder they are deeply offended. Their self-serving mindset sees Jesus bypassing his in-group and giving the benefits to undeserving outsiders. What a reprehensible way to repay one’s kin! The dynamics quickly shift from goodwill to anger, and the earlier acclaim deteriorates into murderous fury, so that “all in the synagogue were filled with rage” (4:28). Their attempt to throw Jesus off the cliff (4:29), if successful, would have been followed by hurling stones down the steep drop to finish him off. Although some may justify the mob action as the stoning of a false prophet (Deut 13:1–11), it is not a legal execution, and certainly not on the Sabbath! Jesus cuts through the crowd and leaves the scene of rejection (4:30). Manipulation and hostility will not distract Jesus from his central mission, and he will continue to do what he is commissioned to do.113

Early Ministry in Galilee (4:31–44)

This section parallels more or less the narrative framework of Mark 1:21–39. While Mark has Jesus calling his first four disciples before relating his ministry at Capernaum (Mark 1:16–20), Luke recounts the call story in greater detail (5:1–11) after this series of vignettes. This rearrangement makes better narrative sense by explaining the fishermen’s knowledge of Jesus prior to their decision to follow him. An exorcism is followed by a healing (4:31–39), showing how Jesus brings “release to the captives . . . [and] let the oppressed go free” (4:18). These two miracles lead to many other similar actions that Luke simply notes in summary (4:40–41). The section closes with Jesus’ declaration that his mission is to go to all the cities and proclaim the good news of God’s kingdom (4:42–44).

The cosmic battle between God and evil is played out on the human stage, with Jesus as God’s agent and the demon as Satan’s minion holding a man hostage. The first of Jesus’ many miracles that Luke presents is an exorcism on the Sabbath at a synagogue in Capernaum (4:31–37). Although more populated and prosperous than Nazareth, Capernaum was still a poor fishing village at the time of Jesus. Excavations uncovered little sign of wealth in the form of fine pottery and expensive frescoes.114 From Matthew and Mark we learn that Jesus made his home in Capernaum at some point (Matt 4:13; Mark 2:1). Luke never alludes to this fact, even though he locates Jesus in Capernaum on multiple occasions in his narrative (4:23, 31; 7:1).

Many in Capernaum are drawn to Jesus even though they are not fully aware of his identity and mission. His authority is already widely acknowledged among the populace (4:32). On this occasion, a man with an unclean spirit115 disrupts the service at the synagogue (4:33). The demon is no match against Jesus, but he puts up a loud and rambling protest (4:34). The Greek interjection, ea, is more than an exclamation of surprise. It implies resistance, which some English translations express as “Let us alone!” (NRSV, NKJV) or “Go away!” (NLT).116 The question that follows, ti hēmin kai soi (literally, “What to us and to you?”), is idiomatic, connoting suspicion and rejection: “What have you to do with us?” or “What have we to do with you?” (cf. Judg 11:12; 2 Sam 16:10). According to ancient magical practices, calling an enemy by name in an incantation was a power play.117 This demon not only recognizes Jesus as “Jesus of Nazareth” but “the Holy One of God” as well (cf. 1:35). In vain he tries to claim superiority by naming Jesus, yet his pretense is futile. In the end, his question, “Have you come to destroy us?” becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Jesus does not need any lengthy incantation, for his word is authoritative enough to drive out the demon: “Be silent and come out of him!” (4:35). Even though the unclean spirit knows who Jesus is, this must not be proclaimed by an enemy of God. Immediately the demon’s power is subdued and it departs with a whimper, throwing the man down on the floor without doing him further harm. The eyewitnesses are now impressed by Jesus’ exorcising power in addition to his teachings (4:36–37). The news spreads like wildfire, but the people have yet to figure out what this is all about.

Moving from the public to the private sphere, Jesus leaves the synagogue and enters the house of Simon, whose mother-in-law is suffering from a high fever (4:38). Consistent with Luke’s penchant to pair a story of a man with that of a woman,118 the recipient of Jesus’ saving act also moves from a demon-possessed man to a sick woman. There are interesting similarities in the description of the exorcism and this healing. Jesus “rebuked (epetimēsen) the fever” (4:39) just as he “rebuked (epetimēsen) [the demon]” (4:35; cf. 4:41). Then the fever “left her” (4:39) just as the demon “came out of him” (4:37). Just as the man was released from the bondage of an evil spirit, Simon’s mother-in-law is now freed from the oppression of grave sickness. That she is able to get up and wait upon Jesus and his companions further proves the efficacy of Jesus’ healing power and her response of gratitude.

The summary statement of 4:40–41 gives the readers an idea of Jesus’ impact thus far. By the end of the Sabbath, crowds flock to Jesus, bringing with them many who are afflicted by disease and demons, and all are cured. More demons are cast out and silenced by Jesus because they know his true identity as Son of God and Messiah. The battle line is drawn, but with whom the people of Capernaum will align themselves is yet to be seen.

The next morning Jesus withdraws to a deserted place, presumably to pray (4:42a; cf. Mark 1:35), but the crowd catches up with him soon enough. Like the villagers of Nazareth, the people of Capernaum also want to keep Jesus for themselves, but are again told that his mission includes other cities as well (4:42b–43). The verb apestalēn (“I was sent”) is passive, which denotes agency. Jesus is sent by God, not only to Nazareth or Capernaum, but throughout the region and beyond. Implicit in the verb dei119 (“it is necessary;” “I must”) is a divine necessity; Jesus is under God’s compulsion to proclaim the good news, which is spread through Jesus’ words as well as his actions.

The final verse of this section, “so [Jesus] continued proclaiming the message in the synagogues of Judea” (4:44), hearkens back to 4:14–15, reminding the readers that while Jesus’ acts of wonder are impressive and effective, teaching remains central to his mission. Teaching and healing go hand in hand in Jesus’ encounters with “the poor” everywhere. The reference to Judea here should be understood as “the land of the Jews,” a general term for the whole of Palestine, including Galilee, and not only the region surrounding Jerusalem.120

Different responses to Jesus are emerging; the crowds are awestruck, and the demons are defiant. Neither exhibits a model response. Only Simon’s mother-in-law is shown to express her gratitude in the form of service. In her we catch a glimpse of what constitutes a proper response to Jesus. In the next chapter, we trace Simon’s movement from observer to follower as Luke returns to the account of Jesus calling his first disciples.

107. E.g., Exod 32:1–8; Judg 2:11–13; 2 Chr 28:1–4; Jer 9:13–14; Hos 11:1–2.

108. 4:33–37; 8:28–30; 9:38–42; 10:17–19; 11:14–23; 13:11–16.

109. Walker 2006: 31–33; Garland 2011: 195.

110. Marshall 1978: 181–82; Nolland 1989: 194.

111. See 4Q521 2 II, 5–8. For the Qumran community, only insiders receive eschatological benefits. In Luke, Jesus’ offer of salvation is universal, including both insiders and outsiders.

112. See pp. 65–66.

113. Longenecker (2012: 42–50) links the verb, eporeueto (“[he] went on his way,” 4:30b) with other uses of poreuomai (“to go”) in Luke that highlight Jesus’ movements on his fateful journey toward Jerusalem where he will be killed (9:51, 57; 10:38; 13:33; 17:11; 19:28, 36). Jesus’ death will not take place in Nazareth but in Jerusalem. But even from the start of his ministry, Jesus’ “going” is aligned with the purpose for which he is sent—to preach the kingdom of God (4:43) until the mission culminates in his ultimate sacrifice.

114. Garland (2011: 214) estimates the population of Capernaum at the time of Jesus to be about 600 to 1500, and Nazareth about 400.

115. The “uncleanness” of demons has to do with purity laws, which separate the clean from the unclear, and the pure from the impure. See pp. 72–73.

116. Jesus rebukes the demon directly in the second person singular in v. 35. But when the man screams at Jesus in v. 34, he speaks in the first person plural, joined with the demon within him.

117. Garland 2011: 215.

118. E.g., Zechariah and Mary (ch. 1); Simeon and Anna (ch. 2); a centurion and a widow (ch. 7); Jairus and a hemorrhaging woman (ch. 8); a bent woman and a man with dropsy (chs. 13–14).

119. See p. 45, n. 30.

120. Luke 6:17; 7:17; Acts 10:37; 26:20.