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‘Tropical’ waters in an icy setting. Antarctica is magical.
The Polar Regions
The Earth has two poles, and they are very different. Our planet's extremities are kept cold because the sun's rays hit the surface at an angle, unlike the lands around the Equator, where they collide with the Earth's surface directly and more forcefully. The white expanse of the ice-caps also deflects more than 80 per cent of the heat in these rays, while the darker landmasses, or oceans, absorb it.
Geographically speaking – and for simplicity's sake – the areas covered in this book are, on the one hand, the Arctic Ocean and all the landmass to its south as far as the Arctic Circle, and the Antarctic continent and South Georgia on the other. Clearly, there are more places on Earth with sub-zero temperatures and wide open spaces that could very well be used for polar training, but the biggest playgrounds for polar travellers – where most of the real action takes place – are the two so-called ‘no-man's lands’: the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic continent. Here any human activity is very difficult because of the brutal cold. Note that ‘polar regions’ are not defined merely as those with permanent snow or ice cover, as there are glaciers on and around the mountains of the world far away from the poles.
The Arctic
Antarctic polar regions (Source: ESA/AOES Medialab)
The Arctic
The Arctic circle sits at 66°33′44″ North
THE BOUNDARIES OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN
The official definition laid down by the International Hydrographic Organisation.
Between Greenland and West Spitzbergen – the northern limit of the Greenland Sea.
Between West Spitzbergen and North East Land – the parallel of latitude 80° North.
From Cape Leigh Smith to Cape Kohlsaat – the northern limit of the Barentz Sea.
From Cape Kohlsaat to Cape Molotov – the northern limit of the Kara Sea.
From Cape Molotov to the northern extremity of Kotelni Island – the northern limit of the Laptev Sea.
From the northern extremity of Kotelni Island to the northern point of Wrangel Island – the northern limit of the East Siberian Sea.
From the northern point of Wrangel Island to Point Barrow – the northern limit of the Chuckchi Sea.
From Point Barrow to Cape Land's End on Prince Patrick Island – the northern limit of the Beaufort Sea, through the northwest coast of Prince Patrick Island to Cape Leopold M'Clintock, thence to Cape Murray (Brook Island) and along the northwest coast to the extreme northerly point; to Cape Mackay (Borden Island); through the northwesterly coast of Borden Island to Cape Malloch, to Cape Isachsen (Ellef Ringnes Island); to the northwest point of Meighen Island to Cape Stallworthy (Axel Hieberg Island) to Cape Colgate the extreme west point of Ellesmere Island; through the north shore of Ellesmere Island to Cape Columbia, thence a line to Cape Morris Jesup (Greenland).
The Arctic, the world's smallest ocean and home to the North Pole, is primarily a thick flow of ice over frigid waters. The average size of the icepack floating on the Arctic Ocean is seven million square metres. The land that can be found in its lower latitudes is called ‘tundra’, characterised by enormous expanses of permafrost, a permanently frozen layer of earth reaching a depth between 0.6 and 4m, and occurring between latitudes 60° and 68 ° North. Greenland is also part of the Arctic, and is covered by an ice-cap that on average measures 1500m thick.
More fish live along the edges of the Arctic Ocean than anywhere else on Earth and the average winter temperature is minus 35°C, while the average summer temperature is between 3 and 12°C.
Politically speaking, the countries offering the opportunity for Arctic expeditions are: Canada, US, Russia, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Greenland (partially independent from Denmark) and Iceland.
The Antarctic
Surrounded by frigid waters, the Antarctic continent stretches between 90° and 63° South
Antarctica is far less complicated politically in that this independent continent is completely detached from others. In terms of the possibilities for polar exploration, South Georgia is an additional option in the southern hemisphere, in that it offers similar polar conditions, situated at latitudes 54°30’ South and 37° West.
The Antarctic covers around 13 million km2 (varying seasonally), and on average the Antarctic continent covers 8.9 per cent of the Earth's surface. The following countries have submitted active, but not globally recognised, territorial claims: Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom. However, these claims have little practical relevance since the signing of the Antarctic Treaty which came into effect in 1961 and sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve.
Antarctica is the coldest and windiest place on Earth; its highest point is Mount Vinson at 4897m and its lowest point the Bentley Subglacial Trench at 2555m below sea level. Twice the size of Australia, it offers an enormous expanse of ice: some 95 per cent of Antarctica is covered by an ice-cap averaging 1.6km thick.
Antarctica has no official population, language, currency or capital.
THE ARCTIC AND THE ANTARCTIC – SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
Environment
Similarities
Snow and ice
Northern and Southern lights
Freezing and icebergs
Blizzards and snowstorms
Both are among the most arid places on Earth
Differences
The Antarctic is a continent and has an enormous amount of ice lying on top of a landmass; the Arctic is predominantly an ocean with a thin layer of ice floating on top.
The Arctic has trees; the Antarctic does not.
The Arctic Ocean (4000m deep) has a thin ice layer floating on top; the Antarctic landmass has up to 4000m ice on top.
The Arctic has tundra; no such vegetation in the Antarctic.
Atomic waste in the Arctic; problems of refuse disposal and potential oil exploitation in the Antarctic.
Weather
Arctic
Coldest temperature ever recorded: −68°C.
Coldest period of the year: when the sun reappears over the horizon.
With fluctuating weather systems, storms rarely last longer than 2–3 days.
At full moon and higher tides, the ice is much more dynamic; leads and compression zones are formed.
Many spring days with dense fog or white-out conditions.
Antarctic
The coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth was at Vostok Research Station at −89.2°C.
Hardly any precipitation (yearly average of 500mm a year).
Winds can blow up to 320km/h.
During storms, the height of snowdrift increases with wind strength.
Typically, katabatic winds roll down from the high plateau to the coastal areas with increasing velocity.
Animal and plant life
Similarities
Lichen and mosses.
Seals, whales and birds.
Krill and fish.
Differences
Polar bears in the Arctic; penguins in the Antarctic.
No terrestrial animals in the Antarctic; many in the Arctic, such as musk oxen, reindeer, caribou, foxes, hares, wolves, lemming, bears.
Algae in the Antarctic; not in the Arctic.
Human activity
Human population north of 60° North in the Arctic is in excess of 2 million with modern settlements, while in Antarctica there are no permanent residents, only a sparse population at scattered scientific stations.
The first crossing of the Antarctic Circle was by James Cook on 17 January 1773, while the first crossing of the Arctic Circle is prehistoric.
The Arctic has indigenous people, while the Antarctic does not.
Human presence in the Arctic dates back at least 14,000 years, while the first temporary settlements in the Antarctic were installed at the end of the 19th century.
There are scientific stations in both the Arctic and the Antarctic.
The Arctic has towns, while the Antarctic only has research bases.
Discovery of the Arctic considerably predates the first sightings of Antarctica.
Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis
Both Aurora appear around the polar regions. The Aurora Australis appears around Antarctica in the austral winter (winter in the Southern Hemisphere), while the Aurora Borealis appears around the Arctic during winter in the Northern Hemisphere. An Aurora Australis or an Aurora Borealis occurs when streams of particles from the sun's solar winds hit the Earth's atmosphere at an angle (as can only happen at the poles). These particles interact with the edges of the Earth's magnetic field, and when they collide with the gases in the ionosphere the particles glow, creating curtains of blue, green and magenta. An Aurora is sometimes accompanied by a crackling sound.
History of Exploration
The Arctic
Early exploration
Around the 16th century it was believed that the North Pole was to be found in a sea, with only a slight chance of reaching it when the ice floes would allow a passage. Whaling ships studied the weather and ice conditions out of curiosity while working in the area.
Economic reasons lured many early expeditions to the far ends of our globe
The first explorer to set out on an expedition specifically aimed at finding the North Pole was the Englishman William Edward Parry, who reached latitude 82°45’ in 1827. He was followed by the American Charles Francis Hall in 1871 with the Polaris expedition, which ended in disaster with his death in November of that year, the ship being crushed in the ice the following October.
The same fate awaited George Washington DeLong on the USS Jeanette, when the ship was crushed by ice at the end of their expedition between 1879 and 1881. DeLong and half of his crew were lost.
In 1895 Fridtjof Nansen invited Frederik Johansen to leave their icebound ship the Fram and try to reach the North Pole on skis. They managed to reach latitude 86°14’ and then began their incredible trek southward to reach Franz Jozef Land.
In 1897 Swedish engineer Salomon Andrée and two of his companions tried a novel way of reaching the North Pole using a hydrogen balloon, but were stranded 300km from their start point at Kvitoya in the northeastern part of the archipelago of Svalbard and lost their lives in the process.
Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi, and Captain Umberto Cagni sailed the converted whaler Stella Polare from Norway in 1899. When they reached latitude 86°34’ on 25 April 1900 they had beaten Nansen's record by 40km.
1900–1940
The biggest mystery in the discovery of the North Pole arises from the claims of two controversial explorers, neither of whom managed to produce adequate proof that they had actually placed foot on the northern part of the imaginary axis between both poles.
The American explorer Frederick Cook claimed to have reached the North Pole on 21 April 1908 with two Inuit men, Ahwelah and Etukishook, but he was unable to produce convincing proof and his claim was widely disputed. Another American, Navy engineer Robert Peary, claimed to have reached the pole on 6 April 1909, accompanied by another American, Matthew Henson, and four Inuit men: Ootah, Seeglo, Egingwah and Ooqueah. However, Peary's claim remains unsubstantiated. The party that accompanied Peary on the final stage of the journey included no one who was trained in navigation and could independently confirm his own navigational work (which some claim to have been particularly sloppy as he approached the pole).
Many consider the distances and speeds that Peary claimed to have achieved once the last support party turned back – almost three times that which he had accomplished up to that point – incredible. Peary's account of a journey to the pole and back while travelling along the direct line – the only strategy that is consistent with the time constraints he was facing – is contradicted by Henson's account of tortuous detours to avoid pressure ridges and open leads.
The first recorded flight over the North Pole was made on 9 May 1926 by US naval officer Richard E Byrd and pilot Floyd Bennett in a Fokker tri-motor aircraft but this claim has also been disputed.
The first undisputed sighting of the pole was on 12 May 1926 by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen, who used the airship Norge, together with his American sponsor Lincoln Ellsworth and pilot Umberto Nobile. The flight started from Svalbard and crossed the entire ice-cap to Alaska. Nobile, along with several scientists and crew from the Norge, overflew the pole a second time on 24 May 1928 in the airship Italia, but it crashed on its return, with the loss of half the crew.
1940–2000
Discounting Peary's disputed claim, the first men to set foot at the North Pole are likely to have been members of a Soviet Union party, variously described as including Pavel Gordiyenko and three or five others, or Aleksandr Kuznetsov and 23 others, who landed a plane (or planes) there on 23 April 1948.
On 3 May 1952, US Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Joseph O Fletcher and Lieutenant William P Benedict, along with scientist Albert P Crary, landed a modified C-47 Skytrain at the North Pole. Some sources consider this (rather than the Soviet mission) to be the first ever landing at the pole.
The US Navy submarine USS Nautilus crossed the North Pole on 3 August 1958, and on 17 March 1959 she surfaced at the pole, becoming the first naval vessel to do so.
Setting aside Peary's claim, the first confirmed surface conquest of the North Pole was that of Ralph Plaisted, Walt Pederson, Gerry Pitzl and Jean Luc Bombardier, who travelled over the ice by snowmobile and arrived on 19 April 1968. The US Air Force independently confirmed their position.
On 6 April 1969 Wally Herbert and companions Allan Gill, Roy Koerner and Kenneth Hedges of the British Trans-Arctic Expedition became the first men to reach the North Pole on foot (albeit with the aid of dog teams and air drops). They continued on to complete the first surface crossing of the Arctic Ocean – and by its longest axis, from Barrow, Alaska, to Svalbard – a feat that has never been repeated.
The Antarctic
The history of exploration of the Antarctic continent and the quest for the South Pole is far more prolific than that of the Arctic Ocean.
Early exploration
In September 1519 Ferdinand Magellan sailed from Spain in search of a westerly route to the Indies. Sailing down the coast of South America, he discovered the narrow strait passing through to the Pacific Ocean which today bears his name. To the south lies Tierra del Fuego, which the early geographers assumed to be the edge of the southern continent.
Francis Drake passed through the Straits of Magellan in September 1578, only to find himself blown significantly southward due to a tremendous storm in the Pacific. This event proved that Tierra del Fuego was separated from any southern continent, and the passageway came to be known as the ‘Drake Passage’.
The Englishman John Davis discovered the Falkland Islands in August 1592 during a tragic expedition. The crew were forced to kill some 14,000 penguins for food, which were stored as properly as possible, but once the ship reached the Tropics the penguin meat spoiled. Only 16 members of the original crew of 76 ever reached home shores.
The first men to cross the Antarctic Circle, in January 1773, were Englishman Captain James Cook and his crew. On his third voyage, in January 1775, he sailed past South Georgia and discovered the South Sandwich Islands two weeks later.
1820–1899
On 27 January 1820 the Russian Fabian von Bellinghausen became the first person to see the Antarctic continent. In that same year American Nathaniel Palmer, on the Hero, claimed to see the Antarctic Peninsula. Palmer was a member of a sealing fleet from New England. Only 19 years old, he was dispatched from the sealing grounds in the South Shetlands by his commanding officer to search for land to the south.
The next year von Bellinghausen returned to the Antarctic waters and discovered Peter I Island and the Alexander Islands. He completed a circumnavigation of Antarctica, being only the second explorer, after Cook, to do so.
The Belgica in 1897: the first overwintering in Antarctica – the expedition combined the discovery of new territory, a scientific mission and the lure of adventure
In February 1821 American sealer John Davis was probably the first person to land on the continent. From Connecticut, Davis had been searching the South Shetlands for seals.
Englishman James Weddell sailed in 1823 to 74° South. This was the furthest south yet reached, and the sea bears his name today. Except for possibly Margot Morrell, no one was able to penetrate this sea again for 80 years.
The Erebus and Terror, under command of Sir James Ross of the British Royal Navy, left in January 1841 in search of the South Magnetic Pole. He discovered Victoria Land and entered the sea which is known famously now as the Ross Sea. He discovered Ross Island, Mount Erebus and the Ross Ice Shelf.
The voyage of the Belgica (1897–99) can be called the first true scientific Antarctic expedition. In March 1898 Adrien de Gerlache and the international crew on board the ship, including Roald Amundsen and Dr Frederick Cook, become trapped in the pack ice off the Antarctic Pensinsula. They drifted helplessly for a year, becoming the first to survive an Antarctic winter.
Carsten Borchgrevink and crew of the Southern Cross landed at Cape Adare in February 1899. They built huts and became the first to overwinter on the continent.
1900–1947
In February 1902 Swedish geologist Otto Nordenskjöld and five crew members were left on Snow Hill Island, where they spent two winters. It was during this expedition that the first major sledge journey in Antarctica (some 400 miles) took place. Unfortunately, their ship Antarctic was crushed in the ice pack after the sledging team had been left on the island, thereby creating two separate groups of explorers. Miraculously, the second crew was able to survive the winter and find their way back to Snow Hill Island, where the whole party was rescued in 1903 by an Argentinean relief ship.
In November the same year Robert F Scott, Edward Wilson and Ernest Shackleton struck out for the South Pole. Having left McMurdo Sound and headed south across the Ross Ice Shelf, two months later they found themselves at 82° South suffering from snow blindness and scurvy. Forced to return home, they nonetheless covered 3100 miles.
In October 1908 explorers Ernest Shackleton, Frank Wild, Eric Marshall and Jameson Adams attempted to reach the South Pole. Within 30 days they had surpassed Scott's effort of 1903. Within 97 nautical miles of their goal the group were severely ill and undernourished, and so had to abandon their attempt on the pole.
The story of Amundsen and Scott's heroic race to the pole still fascinates today – and both men are commemorated at the South Pole
The victor of the race for the South Pole was Norwegian Roald Amundsen and his four team members. They reached the South Pole on 14 December 1911. Amundsen discovered a new route which took only 57 days. Letters were left for Scott, a Norwegian flag was planted, then they returned to the Bay of Whales.
On 18 January 1912 Robert F Scott, Edward Wilson, Edgar Evans, Henry Bowers and Lawrence Oates reached the South Pole. Unfortunately, Amundsen has beaten them to it. Terribly discouraged after a tortuous journey, all members perished on the return trip. Scott, Wilson and Bowers died in their tent after using up all fuel and food. The three were not discovered until November.
Ernest Shackleton planned to cross the continent, but was forced to abandon this idea as his ship, Endurance, was crushed in the ice of the Weddell Sea in October 1915 after drifting for nine months. The 28 men camped on the floating ice for five more months before an opening in the ice allowed them to take to the boats to Elephant Island in the South Shetlands. Meanwhile, members of Shackleton's Ross shore party laid depots for the ill-fated group, to be used by Shackleton and his party on their trek across the continent. Three members died, but the rest were eventually rescued in 1917.
On 28 November 1929, after a 10-hour flight from their base at the Bay of Whales, Richard E Byrd and three others became the first to fly over the South Pole.
Typical Arctic scenery – a dynamic marine environment with the ocean's rock bottom at 4000m
American Lincoln Ellsworth was the first to fly across the continent successfully in November 1935, while another big-scale expedition, Operation Highjump, was organised in January 1947 by the US Navy. A total of 4700 men, 13 ships and 23 aircraft were involved. A base was set up at Little America. Extensive mapping of the coast and interior was accomplished, and over 70,000 aerial photographs were taken.
Getting There
When to go
Arctic
It goes without saying that weather conditions on any polar expedition are going to be testing, but rain, sleet or wet snow can make things a whole lot worse. Everything gets wet and makes the sled much heavier; and if the temperature then drops, scraping ice off clothing and managing equipment becomes a nightmare. So it's best not to leave too early (September, October) or risk the same moist conditions and ice break-up in May or June. This leaves approximately six months from November to April during which you can enjoy the cold in the higher latitudes on firm land – and, in this period, early winter and late spring are naturally best for daylight. It is advisable to study in depth the weather conditions of the region to which you want to travel and to get more precise information on local conditions.
Expeditions on the Arctic Ocean are limited by the airlines that can fly parties to the starting point or pick them up at the end of the season, which stretches from the beginning of March to early May, all depending on the ice conditions. Therefore, communications between the expedition and the airlines out of either Canada or Russia (see below) need to be well coordinated.
Antarctic
Similarly there are only two gateways for travel to Antarctica: from Cape Town, South Africa, to Novolazarevskaya in the Queen Maud Land mountain range; or from Punta Arenas, Argentina, to the Patriot Hills base, recently relocated to the Union Glacier. Here the season stretches between early November and the beginning of February, giving a good four months to get on and off the continent. Outside this window there are no commercial flights in or out.
See below (Airlines) for details of the main operators in both the Antarctic and Arctic. Contact them for information of costs and logistics.
Regulations and guidelines
There are very few places on our planet where there is no policing body forcing us to ‘obey the rules’, but the Arctic and Antarctic both fall into this bracket – perhaps because the polar regions don't offer the most exciting jobs for peace-keeping forces!
A ‘steamy’ lead at sunset with a treacherous and unstable shoreline
The Antarctic is a stable continent with mountains peeking through an enormously huge ice mass
Historically the only reasons for man to claim parts of the Arctic or Antarctic were nationalistic ones, with the extra bonus of economic growth. Later, claiming unknown lands or parts of the frozen seas became a sport in order to exploit either the riches that could be found on land or the best fishing grounds. Nations like Holland, Great Britain, Norway, Germany and the United States, to name just a few, tempted to explore the High North and the Deep South, were confronted with many difficulties, with heroic tales of the surviving crews surely outnumbered by those of the mariners who froze to death. There was nothing exotic about the harsh environment of the poles.
Consequently it is no surprise that, so far, the polar regions have been left alone. We know that today the strict legislation surrounding the fishing industry regulates the coming and going of anyone with commercial intent, and that any claims on landmasses will be condemned. But we also know that there is no border control once you go south from any of the nations that offer jump-off points for a visit to Antarctica; equally there is no customs check when you travel north from the last landmasses before you set foot on the Arctic Ocean.
There are limitations, however. There is control from the organisations providing logistical support for anyone travelling to the (Ant)Arctic. There are treaties stipulating rules and regulations to promote fair play. There are logistical and geographical restrictions. And there are enough ethical reasons to treat these fragile areas of the world as unique and irreplaceable. Therefore it is up to each of us to respect any restrictions that may apply so that subsequent generations can enjoy the same liberty.
Anyone travelling to the Arctic or Antarctic must check with their own government to locate the specific organisation who can supply accurate and up-to-date information concerning permits and possible restrictions on where or how to travel. At present there is no world body responsible for giving out permits for polar travel.
Codes of behaviour
The following organisations have laid down measures to protect the environment, culture and heritage of the polar regions.
For the Arctic, AECO (Association of Arctic Expedition Cruise Operators, www.aeco.no) is an international organisation which tries to ensure that tourism in the Arctic is carried out with the utmost consideration for the fragile natural environment, local cultures and antiquities, while ensuring safe tour operations at sea and on land.
Visitors are asked to respect the following rules.
1 Leave no lasting signs of your visit.
2 Do not take anything with you.
3 Do not disturb animals and birds.
4 Do not pick flowers.
5 Leave cultural remains alone.
6 Take the polar bear seriously.
7 Respect local culture and local people.
8 Be safe.
For the Antarctic, IAATO (International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators, www.iaato.org) was founded in 1991 to advocate, promote and practise safe and environmentally responsible private-sector travel to the Antarctic.
Even though IAATO's members are commercially active, and individuals or smaller groups of Antarctic explorers are not inclined to join, it is appropriate to make them aware of your plans. Most of the governmental organisations are in close contact with IAATO, so in this small world you are bound to cross their path.
Those polar adventurers who do not want to rely on the flights plying between South America or South Africa and prefer to travel to Antarctica by a different means – by sailing, paddling (maybe even swimming!) – must check with their local governments and fill out the necessary paperwork to comply with each nation's rules and regulations.
Ilushin aircraft fly scientists, adventurers and logistic personnel to Antarctica… without cabin service!
Airlines
The following companies offer flights to the Arctic Ocean:
VICAAR, based in St Petersburg (www.northpolextreme.com), the only company offering direct access to the heart of the Arctic Ocean during April.
Ken Borek Air (www.borekair.com), operating all over the Arctic; their Resolute Bay Station is the most frequented by polar explorers.
First Air (www.firstair.ca), airline of the North.
There are two main organisations for expeditions travelling to the Antarctic:
ALE (www.antarctic-logistics.com) Operating out of Punta Arenas, Chile, Antarctic Logistics and Expeditions secures flights to the Patriot Hills. Until the 2009 Antarctic season, the runway was situated at the Patriot Hills, but due to erratic weather conditions they have moved all operations to the Union Glacier.
ALCI (www.alci.info) The Antarctic Logistics Center International is a logistics service provider in the Dronning Maud Land Network (Dromlan) since its inception in 2002. It provides an international air bridge between Cape Town and Novolazarevskaya Station during the austral summer from late October to the beginning of March.
