Читать книгу A History of Geographical Discovery in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries - Edward Heawood - Страница 4

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The closing years of the sixteenth century formed an important turning-point in the history of the world, and, as a natural consequence, in the more special field of geographical discovery also. A hundred years had elapsed since the great events which gave to the latter end of the fifteenth century its unique influence on the story of the nations—the discovery of America, and the first voyage to India round the Cape of Good Hope. During that interval Spain and Portugal, the pioneers in the new movement towards world-wide empire and commerce, had attained a degree of expansion unknown since the days of the Roman Empire, and, in virtue of the famous Bull of Pope Alexander VI, had practically divided the extra-European world between them. Fleet after fleet had been despatched from their shores, straining to the utmost the too scanty resources of the two nations, reinforced though they were by the riches of Peru, and the spices and other valuable commodities of the East. Meanwhile, other nations were standing forth as possible rivals, and the arrogant claims of Spain and Portugal to exclude all others from the world's commerce did but hasten the downfall of their supremacy.

In the hope of securing a share in the East Indian trade the English long expended their energies on fruitless efforts to open a route by the frozen North, though the bold exploits of Drake and others brought them into actual collision with Spain on the ground claimed by her as her exclusive property. Private adventurers also made their way to the East, but it was not until the nautical supremacy of Spain had been broken in 1588 by the defeat of the "Invincible Armada", that the equal rights of all to the use of the maritime highways were vindicated. It was, however, not the English, but the Dutch who were the first to avail themselves of the new opportunities. After the voyages of the Portuguese had made Lisbon the chief entrepot of the valuable Indian trade, Antwerp and Amsterdam rose to importance as centres of distribution of Indian goods over Northern Europe. Rendered desperate by Spanish oppression, the seven northern provinces of the Netherlands in 1580 declared their independence, and in retaliation Philip II, under whom the whole dominions of Spain and Portugal were then united, took the short-sighted step of forbidding the Amsterdam merchants to trade with Lisbon. Threatened with ruin, they were of necessity driven to more determined efforts to obtain an independent trade with the East, and though they too, for a time, made the mistake of searching for a northern route, they soon boldly resolved to enter into open competition with the Portuguese, and in 1595-96 the first Dutch fleet sailed for India. An English expedition had, it is true, made its way to the East in 1591, but it proved unsuccessful, and it was not until 1599 that systematic steps for a direct trade with India were taken by the formation of the English East India Company.

With the change thus brought about in the distribution of material power among the nations of Europe, it was natural that geographical discovery should also in future follow a different course. Whereas the great discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had been almost entirely the work of Spain and Portugal, with the beginning of the seventeenth the energies of both nations became suddenly paralysed, and after the first decade of the new century no more great navigators set sail from their shores. Their place was taken by the Dutch, French, and English; the Dutch especially—who, as already stated, had gained a start on the English in the matter of Eastern trade—leading the way, during the early part of the new period, in the path of maritime discovery. But although the French lagged somewhat behind, as compared with the Dutch and English, in the prosecution of Eastern enterprises, they were destined to play an important part in the exploration of the New World, especially in North America, to which their view had been directed from an early period, even in the sixteenth century. By a curious coincidence the Russians were simultaneously entering upon a new period of activity in the broad regions of northern Asia. It was to these four nations therefore that the principal work in completing the geographical picture of the world in its broad outlines was now to fall.

Before proceeding to describe the course of discovery under the new order of things, it will be well to take a rapid survey of the state of knowledge of the globe existing at the close of the sixteenth century, and of the ideas which then prevailed respecting the still unknown portions.

As regards the knowledge of the general distribution of land and water, a marked improvement had taken place during the latter half of the century. America, after the voyage of Magellan across the Pacific, had slowly taken its fitting place as an independent division of the land, being now regarded neither as an insular mass of comparatively small area, as had been supposed by the mapmakers of the opening years of the century, nor as stretching across the North Pacific in a comparatively low latitude to join the eastern parts of Asia, as had been shown on maps dating from the middle of the century. The idea of a narrow strait separating the two continents in the far north was already gaining ground, though based apparently on a quite insufficient foundation.

Much less had been done to clear up the uncertainties respecting the supposed Great Southern Continent, which had from very early times appealed to the imagination of philosophers, and the investigation of which was the most important piece of geographical work remaining to be done. Even before the voyage of Magellan, geographers had a strong belief in the existence of land beyond the southern ocean, and this was greatly strengthened by the passage of that navigator through the strait which bears his name, as it was naturally imagined that the land to the south of the strait formed part of a great continental mass. Whether or not the ancient and medieval geographers had to any extent based their ideas on vague rumours of Australia which may have reached the countries of southern Asia, is a question which cannot be answered; but it has been held with some show of reason that statements of Marco Polo, Varthema, and other travellers, point to a knowledge that an extensive land did lie to the south of the Malay Archipelago. It is an almost equally difficult matter, and one which concerns our present subject more nearly, to decide whether the indications of a continental land immediately to the south of the Archipelago, to be found in maps of the sixteenth century, were based at all on actual voyages of European navigators. The influence of the writings of former travellers and investigators is still seen in many of these maps. Thus the term "Regio Patalis", which occurs on many of the earlier maps as the designation of a southern land, is known to have been borrowed from early writers. In the maps of the Flemish school of cartographers—Ortelius, Mercator, and others—a continental land is vaguely shown, but the details respecting it are merely borrowed from Marco Polo. A special point, however, about these maps is that New Guinea is correctly shown as an island separated by a narrow strait from the main mass of land, although it is stated in one at least that their relation was still uncertain.

An apparently stronger argument for the view that Australia had been reached during the first half of the century is supplied by a series of manuscript maps by a French school of cartographers (of which the best known representative was Pierre Desceliers), the earliest possibly dating from 1530. They all show, immediately to the south of Java, and separated from it only by a narrow channel, a vast land bearing the name Jave la grande. The details inserted on the coast line, though fairly full, are of little use for purposes of identification; but from some slight resemblance of the contours to those of Australia, and from the vast size of the land portrayed, it has been held that the maps in question prove that an actual discovery had been made.

The unsupported evidence of these maps—which in other outlying parts of the world contain many hypothetical details—can, however, be hardly said to justify any positive conclusion, and it may even be possible that some rough sketch of Java (then commonly known by Polo's designation "Java major") may have been used to supply the outline and terminology of the supposed continental land.^[1] However this may be, it is certain that such a discovery was not generally known, and we may consider that to all intents and purposes the work of exploration in this direction had to start from the beginning in the period with which we have to deal. Elsewhere, though vast tracts remained a blank on the maps, the work of discovery did not set out, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, with quite such a clear field. We will take the various quarters of the globe in order, and note briefly the extent of knowledge possessed at the time with respect to each, and the chief tasks still to be accomplished.

[1 The recently discovered Carta Marina of Waldseemüller (1516) has a representation of Java which may be regarded as a first step towards the Great Java of the French maps.]

The extensive exploration of Europe may be said to have been completed by the close of the sixteenth century. Such fantastic forms as had been given to the northern parts of the continent, including the British Islands, in maps of the early part of the century, and even in the famous map of Olaus Magnus of 1539 (though this showed a great improvement on its predecessors), had given place to more correct outlines, thanks principally to the English voyages of Willoughby, Chancellor, Burroughs and others, and the Dutch voyages of Nai, Tetgales, and Barents in 1594-96. The copies of Barents' own map, published at Amsterdam in 1599 and 1611, show well the advance that had been made in the previous half-century (see p. 26). Russia too, though still imperfectly known to the rest of Europe, had been rescued from the obscurity hitherto enveloping it by the work of Von Herberstein (1549), as well as by the travels of Giles Fletcher, Queen Elizabeth's ambassador to the Czar (1588), and of Anthony Jenkinson and other agents of the British Muscovy Company.

The knowledge of Asia attained before the end of the sixteenth century may be considered under three heads. Firstly, that acquired by medieval travellers before the voyage of Vasco da Gama; secondly, that due to the voyages of the Portuguese and others by the sea route to India; and thirdly, the somewhat vague information respecting northern Asia acquired by Russian and Finnish merchants and voyagers during the course of the century. The first of these sources had supplied more or less detailed information respecting the whole of Asia south of Siberia, but the absence of accurate maps or scientific description caused much confusion of ideas with respect to it. For the southern and south-eastern countries, especially the coast-lines, this information was now superseded by the results of recent voyages, though, as we have seen, the statements of the early travellers continued to exercise a powerful influence with map-makers and cosmographers in Europe, if not with the voyagers themselves. For the whole of Central Asia, however, as well as the interior of China, the writings of Friar Odoric, Willem de Rubruk, Marco Polo, and the early missionary friars, remained the only sources of knowledge, and could at best present a most imperfect picture of those vast regions. In the south and east the Portuguese voyages (recorded in the history of De Barros and the poems of Camoens) had before the close of the sixteenth century re-opened to the world a knowledge of the whole coast-line as far as the north of China and the Japanese islands. The greater part of the Malay Archipelago had become well known, including the northern coasts of New Guinea: but whether the southern coast of the great island had been explored is uncertain, the statement by Wytfliet that a strait existed between it and a land to the south being possibly based only on Mercator's theoretical representation. Some information had also been supplied regarding the various kingdoms of India and Indo-China by the travels of Duarte Barbosa, Caesar Frederik, Gasparo Balbi, Ralph Fitch, Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, and others, some of these having reached India overland, and thus contributed to a better knowledge of the countries of western Asia. The extensive travels of Fernão Mendez Pinto, though not published till the beginning of the next century, were carried out during the sixteenth, and, in spite of much exaggeration on the part of the traveller, threw considerable light on the state of the East in his time. Lastly, in Northern Asia, the newly awakened enterprise of Russian and other merchants had begun to make known the western parts of Siberia, including the coasts of the Arctic Ocean as far as the mouth of the Yenesei. The state of knowledge of this region at the beginning of the new century is shown by the map by Isaac Massa published in Holland in 1612. But the great advance of fur-hunters and of others across the wilds of Siberia was only just beginning, and the discovery and conquest of that vast region belongs almost entirely to the period dealt with in the following pages.

In Africa, the end of the sixteenth century marks the close of a period of activity, to be followed by nearly two centuries of stagnation, so far as geographical discovery is concerned. The entire coasts were of course known, and in places, such as Benin, the acquaintance with the lands immediately in their rear was closer than was the case in our own times until quite recent years. There is no doubt, too, that some knowledge of the interior was possessed by the Portuguese at the time we are treating of, though to determine exactly the extent of that knowledge is a task of great difficulty, if not impossible, with the limited material we now possess. From the fact that maps of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries show the African interior filled in with lakes and rivers such as are now known to exist there, it has even been imagined that the Portuguese of those days possessed an intimate knowledge of Central African geography, rivalling that due to the explorers of the nineteenth century. It is necessary briefly to examine the basis of this idea, which we shall find a very unsubstantial one. The earlier cartographers of the sixteenth century (Waldseemüller, Ribeiro, and others) merely followed Ptolemy's account, and made the Nile rise from two or more lakes lying east and west a long way south of the Equator. In course of time, however, the vague information gleaned by the Portuguese on the east and west coasts seems to have been combined with the older conjectural geography. From Congo and Angola on the west, and Mozambique, Sofala, and Abyssinia on the east, rumours of lakes and empires reached the ears of travellers, and when these were put down on the maps with considerable exaggeration of distances, the whole interior became filled with detail, and names heard of from the opposite ends of the continent became confusedly mixed in the centre of it. The maps of Mercator (1541 and 1569), Gastaldi (1548), Ramusio (1550), and Ortelius (1570) are among the earliest examples of this type, all showing the Nile as rising from two great lakes lying east and west, south of the Equator. The well-known map of Filippo Pigafetta (1591), based on the accounts of Duarte Lopez, was evidently evolved in much the same way, though the lakes there appear north and south of each other. In all these maps the greater part of the geography represented is unmistakably Abyssinian (see sketches on p. 150).

In other quarters the knowledge of the Portuguese was probably confined to the districts closely adjoining their colonies of Angola, Mozambique, and Sofala. Behind the two last named, expeditions had been pushed to a considerable distance, and Portuguese envoys had reached the country of the celebrated chief known as the Monomotapa, south of the central Zambezi. The power of this potentate became greatly exaggerated and he was supposed to rule over an empire equal to those of Asiatic monarchs. The Portuguese writers were acquainted with the famous ruins at Zimbabwe, which place the Jesuit priests are even supposed to have visited; but this appears doubtful, as the name Zimbabwe was then applied to the residence of any important chief. The gold-producing region of Manica had certainly been visited before the end of the sixteenth century, and ruined forts now existing prove that the Portuguese occupation extended to the Inyaga country, a little further north, and was not confined to the Zambezi valley. On that river itself their knowledge seems to have extended about to the site of the present post of Zumbo, at the confluence of the Loangwa.

In South America, discovery had made vast strides during the century following the first arrival of white men. Within the first 50 years the whole contour of the coasts had been brought to light, though as the passage round Cape Horn had not been made before the close of the century it was still supposed by some that Tierra del Fuego formed part of a great southern continent. Before the new century began, the range of the Andes, with the important empires occupying its broad uplands, had been made known by the conquests of the great Spanish captains, while explorers of the same nation had also traced the general courses of the three largest rivers of the continent. By the voyage of Orellana in 1540-41, followed twenty years later by that of the tyrant Aguirre, almost the whole of the course of the Amazon had been laid down. In the system of the Plata the Spanish governors Mendoza and Alvar Nuñez had ascended the Paraguay, penetrating almost to the frontiers of Peru, besides forcing a way from the coast to the upper Paraná. Of the Orinoco, the shortest of the three, less had been explored, as the cataract of Atures had turned back more than one adventurous voyager. Its western tributary, the Meta, had, however, been ascended for some distance, and the wide plains at the eastern foot of the Andes of New Granada, about which our information is even at the present day far from perfect, had been traversed again and again by searchers after the fabulous city of "El Dorado"—the Golden Monarch. These included German adventurers like Georg von Speier, Nicholas Federmann, and Philip von Huten, as well as Spanish captains like Hernan Perez de Quesada and Antonio de Berrio. Under the latter the site of the city changed its locality, and the southern tributary of the Orinoco, the Caroni, became the imagined channel of access to its fabled lake; but little success attended his efforts to penetrate in this direction. Nor did much increase of knowledge result from the voyages of Ralegh and other Englishmen to the same regions. In spite of all this activity vast tracts of forest, especially in the Amazon basin, remained unexplored, and the whole southern extremity of the continent was entirely neglected whilst, even where travellers had penetrated, the geographical knowledge obtained was often of the vaguest, and imaginary delineations of lakes and rivers long filled the maps.

In North America much less progress had been made in the work of discovery. While the coasts facing the Atlantic up to the threshold of the Arctic regions had gradually been surveyed by voyagers of various nations, and a few had pushed up the remote Pacific coasts as far as Lat. 42° N., the whole of the northern and north-western shores—the former by reason of their icy barrier, the latter because of their distance from Europe—still remained unknown, though, as already stated, ideas of the existence of a strait separating north-west America from Asia began to be current about this time. The whole of the northern and central interior, too, remained a blank on the map, and only on the confines of the Spanish viceroyalty of Mexico had any progress in land exploration been made. The example of the wealth of Mexico had led adventurers to roam the wide plains of the southern United States in search of fortune, and the expeditions of De Soto, Coronado, and others had made known something of the lower Mississippi and its tributaries, and of the more western regions up to the Grand Cañon of the Colorado. But the absence of rich empires in this direction soon caused these efforts to be abandoned. In Florida, unsuccessful attempts at a settlement had been made by French protestants, and further north, in Virginia, the first beginnings of the English settlements destined to grow in time to such vast proportions were in existence. Still further north, off the coasts of Newfoundland, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and English ships frequented the banks in large numbers for the sake of the fishery, and the French under Cartier had already led the way in discovery by the ascent of the St Lawrence beyond the present site of Quebec, soon to be the scene of colonising efforts on the part of their countrymen. A wide field for discovery was thus open in eastern North America, and the coming century was to witness a well-sustained activity, leading to a great enlargement of the bounds of geographical knowledge.

In the wide domain of the Pacific Ocean much remained to be done, though fairly correct ideas as to its nature and extent had become current. Since the voyage of Magellan many Spanish navigators had crossed from the coast of America to the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, to which this was their regular route, owing to the division of the world between Spain and Portugal, the return voyage being made across the North Pacific in fairly high latitudes. From Callao in Peru Mendaña had twice crossed the ocean in about 10° S., discovering the Solomon and Santa Cruz groups and supplying apparent confirmation of the ideas then current as to the existence of a southern continent. On the second voyage he had been accompanied by the celebrated navigator Quiros, whose own chief work fell within the new century, and will be dealt with in the following pages. Other Spanish navigators had crossed the ocean north of the Equator from Mexico to the Philippines, and it has been supposed that Gaetano—the pilot who accompanied one of these, Villalobos, in 1542—afterwards made a voyage to the Sandwich Islands. But this discovery, if made, was carefully kept secret, and had no influence on the subsequent history of Pacific exploration. The Englishmen Drake and Cavendish had likewise crossed the Northern Pacific, and just at the close of the century the Dutch expedition under Van Noort had followed in the tracks of Magellan and for the fourth time effected the circumnavigation of the globe—but this belongs rather to the new than to the old period. In most of these voyages certain definite routes had been followed, which missed many of the most important groups of islands. The information brought home with respect to those seen was very vague and fragmentary, and for the most part they can with difficulty be now identified. Both in the north and south, vast expanses of ocean remained untraversed, and the exploration of these, especially in the south, was one of the principal tasks of the coming century.

The Wright-Hakluyt Map of A.D. 1600 (Outline sketch). Click on the map to enlarge it.

In the Arctic regions some advance had already been made before the close of the sixteenth century, the new period having in fact been ushered in by the early enterprise of the English and Dutch in this quarter, from about 1550 onwards. In dealing with this part of the world it will be advisable to go back to about that date, so as to give a more connected account of the progress achieved; and it is unnecessary to enter into the subject here.

Title of the Wright-Hakluyt Map of A.D. 1600.

The state of knowledge respecting the world in general at the close of the sixteenth century is well shown by the map prepared under the superintendence of Edward Wright, the Cambridge mathematician, to whom the projection now known as Mercator's is held to be really due. This map, finished in 1600, and sometimes found inserted in the edition of Hakluyt's famous collection of voyages completed in that year, is the earliest English example of that projection. It differs from many maps of the time in its careful discrimination between actual discovery and conjectural geography, the latter being almost entirely excluded. Thus no trace is seen of the hypothetical southern continent, apart from a slight indication of land in the position of northern Australia. The recent Arctic discoveries are well shown, and it has been thought that John Davis had some share in its preparation. The strait which bears his name is correctly drawn, as well as the discoveries of Barents in Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya. In the Far East, too—whence, as we shall see later, Davis had recently returned—the map gives a very correct representation of the Archipelago, Japan, etc. North of the Pacific a wide blank occurs between the coasts of Asia and America, the conjectural connection between the two, and the equally doubtful Strait of Anian shown on so many maps of the period, being alike omitted. Another type of map, current about this time, is represented by that of Ortelius, a reduced copy of which, prepared by Girolamo Porro for Magini's Ptolemy of 1596, is here reproduced from the Italian version of 1598. It will be noticed that the supposed southern continent here takes a prominent place.

Map of the World by Porro, from Magini's Ptolemy of 1596-98. Click on the map to enlarge it.