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List of Figures

1 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 (a) Rod-like or calamitic liquid crystal molecule with director n; (b) disc-like or discotic liquid crystal molecules Figure 2.2 Phases of LC materials versus temperature Figure 2.3 Top view of (a) the close packed hexagonal structure of the smectic B_hex phase, and (b) of the smectic C phase Figure 2.4 The helix in a layered structure of chiral smectic C liquid crystals with polarization perpendicular to Figure 2.5 Helix of the cholesteric phase Figure 2.6 The rotational viscosity for rotation of a molecule perpendicular to the director Figure 2.7 Equilibrium configuration; the elastic deformations splay (a), twist (b) and bend (c)Figure 2.8 The basic structure of a calamitic LC molecule Figure 2.9 Top view of the rows, columns, pixels and contact pads of a display panel Figure 2.10 The structure of a TN-LCD (a) while light is passing, and (b) while light is blocked, a: polarizer; b: glass substrate; c; transparent electrode; g; orientation layer; e: liquid crystal; f: illumination Figure 2.11 LC molecules with pretilt angle a₀ on top of the orientation layer Figure 2.12 Change in the position of the LC molecules with increasing voltage Figure 2.13 Transmitted luminance versus the reduced voltage V_LC across the LC cell for the normally white and normally black modes Figure 2.14 The geometrical arrangement of colour pixels for red R, green G, and blue B (a) in triangles, (b) in stripes and (c) in diagonal form Figure 2.15 Cross-section of a colour filter for TFT addressed LCDs Figure 2.16 TFT addressing of the pixels in a row Figure 2.17 Waveform of the voltage across a pixel during charging and discharge of the storage capacitor
2 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 The plane A in which a planar wave travels with speed c₁ and wave vector parallel to the normal Figure 3.2 The phasor P₀ representing the vector E of an electrical field Figure 3.3 Rotation of the ξ−η coordinates by a into the x-y coordinates Figure 3.4 (a) Top view of Fréedericksz cell with direction of LC molecules and vector E of electric field; (b) cross section of LC cell with parallel layers of molecules and wave vectors k, kx and ky Figure 3.5 The ellipse as locus for the vector of the electric field Figure 3.6 Right- and left-handed elliptically polarized light seen against the propagating wave with wave vector k. viewing against the arrow of k Figure 3.7 Elliptical, circular and linear polarization for different phase differences δ = 2π(Δn/λ)z (Reproduced from Born and Wolf, 1980 with permission of Elsevier.)Figure 3.8 Angles of polarizer and analyser for the Fréedericksz cell Figure 3.9 The intensity Iy, of the Fréedericksz cell for two values of α in Equation (3.73)Figure 3.10 The intensity Ix, of the Fréedericksz cell for two values of α in Equation (3.72)Figure 3.11 The angles of the electric field and the polarizers in a normally white Fréedericksz cell with linearly polarized light at the output d = λ/2Δn. (a) Crossed polarizers; (b) parallel polarizers Figure 3.12 The reflective Fréedericksz cell. (a) Cross-section; (b) top view; (c) explanation of the operation of a reflective cell in the field-free state Figure 3.13 An LCD used as an SLM operating as a multiplier Figure 3.14 |Jzξ| in Equation (3.88) plotted versus α and z Figure 3.15 The linearly polarized light in parallel (α = 0) to the projection of the long axis of the LC molecules into the x-y plane Figure 3.16 Measured phase-shift curves of a Fréedericksz cell Figure 3.17 The DAP cell or Vertically Aligned (VA) cell in the field-free state Figure 3.18 The sputtering of an SiO₂ orientation layer under an oblique angle of 70°Figure 3.19 The reflective HAN cell. (a) Cross-section; (b) optical anisotropy An(z)Figure 3.20 The operation of a reflective HAN cell. (a) In the field-free state; (b) if a voltage is applied Figure 3.21 The pretilt angles and the relaxation to the off-state. (a) Of a TN cell; (b) of a π cell Figure 3.22 The electro-optical response to a square voltage pulse. (a) Of a TN cell with a prolonged relaxation; and (b) of a π cell with a fast relaxation Figure 3.23 The anchoring of LC molecules at z = 0 and z = dFigure 3.24 Normalized rise time T_m versus normalized voltage V_n with various tilt angles θd and θ₀. (a) For p-type and (b) n-type nematic LCs Figure 3.25 Normalized rise time T_m versus normalized voltage V_n with the ratio K of elastic constants as parameter (a) for p-type and (b) n-type nematic LCs Figure 3.26 The ratio T_dn in Equation (3.110) versus K for a p-type nematic LC Figure 3.27 The ratio T_dn in Equation (3.111) versus K for an n-type nematic LC Figure 3.28 An LC cell with (a) the isotropic blue phase when the field is off and (b) the anisotropic phase when the field is on. This figure was reproduced from Yang, Y. C. et al., SID 09, p. 586 with permission by The Society for Information Display Figure 3.29 Phase diagram of chiral nematic LCs with blue phases BP I and BP II. This figure was reproduced from Kikuchi, H. et al., SID 09, p. 580 with permission by The Society for Information Display Figure 3.30 Response time of the PSI-mode. This figure was reproduced from Yang, Y. C. et al., SID 09, p. 589 with permission by The Society for Information Display Figure 3.31 Transmittance versus voltage of the PSI-mode. This figure was reproduced from Yang, Y. C. et al., SID 09, p. 588 with permission by The Society for Information Display
3 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 The general twisted nematic LCD with twist angle β Figure 4.2 The propagation of light from the Jones vector J₁ at the input to the Jones vector O_s at the output through the transmission matrices Tv and the rotation matrices Rv Figure 4.3 The intensity of light passing through a non-addressed TN-LCD with twist angle β = π/2 with a = 2dΔn/λ according to Equation (4.59)Figure 4.4 The intensity of light passing through a non-addressed normally white TN-LCD with twist angle β = π/2 and with a = 2dΔn/λ according to Equation (4.63)Figure 4.5 Angles and coordinates for an STN display Figure 4.6 Transmitted luminance and midlayer tilt versus the voltage across an STN cell with a twist of β = 240°, an off-voltage of 2.58V and an on-voltage of 2.75V for addressing 240 lines (Reproduced from Scheffer and Nehring, 1998 with permission of Annual Reviews.)Figure 4.7 Midlayer tilt versus voltage of an STN cell with twist angle β as a parameter (Reproduced from Scheffer and Nehring, 1998 with permission of Annual Reviews.)Figure 4.8 The influence of the pretilt angle on the electro-distortional curve of the midlayer in an STN cell (Reproduced from Scheffer and Nehring, 1998 with permission of Annual Reviews.)Figure 4.9 Transmitted spectrum of a 240° STN display with the addressing voltage as a parameter (Reproduced from Scheffer and Nehring, 1998 with permission of Annual Reviews.)Figure 4.10 The reduced intensity of a mixed mode TN display Figure 4.11 Incident (—) and reflected (- - -) elliptically polarized light at the metallic mirror of a reflective cell Figure 4.12 The reduced intensity of a mixed mode TN display versus λ = πdΔn/a with Δn (V_LC)Figure 4.13 The tilt of the LC molecules under the influence of a voltage V_LC for Δε > 0
4 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 The Poincaré sphere as a description of polarization Figure 5.2 The complex plane for χ and the pertinent polarizations Figure 5.3 Jones vector J with its complex components Jx and Jy and the unity vectors r and l for circular polarization
5 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 The direction of and of the ordinary beam and of and of the extraordinary beam in a uniaxial LC mediumFigure 6.2 Cross-sections through the sphere of k₀ and the ellipsoid of revolution of k_e for (a) n₀ > n_e, (b) n₀ < n_eFigure 6.3 (a) The ellipsoid of revolution representing n_f in Equation (6.30); (b) propagation of the extraordinary beam obliquely through LC moleculesFigure 6.4 Viewing direction defined by azimuth angle Φ and off-axis angle Θ_eFigure 6.5 Curves of isocontrast and of limit for grey shade inversion of an LCDFigure 6.6 Grey level inversion versus Θ_e in the picture of an LCDFigure 6.7 Optical retardation for oblique viewing angle Θ_e ≠ 0Figure 6.8 Compensation of retardation with a negative c-plateFigure 6.9 (a) A 10 : 1 isocontrast curve for an ECB cell with (ii) and without (i) a discotic compensation film (Haas, 1999); (b) the limit curves of grey inversion in an ECB cell with (ii) and without (i) a discotic filmFigure 6.10 Discotic films of half thickness on either side of the LCDFigure 6.11 Symmetrical curves for 10:1 isocontrast and for limit of grey inversion of cell in Figures 6.9(a) and 6.9(b)Figure 6.12 Compensation of the retardations of the midlayer and surface layer moleculesFigure 6.13 The compensation of retardations of an LCD by discotic films with the same direction of optical axesFigure 6.14 Isocontrast and limit for grey inversion after compensation with discotic films in Figure 6.13Figure 6.15 Double layer STN cell for compensation of black state and coloration and top view on slow and fast propagation axisFigure 6.16 The pairs of STN layers with opposite twist for compensation in Figure 6.15Figure 6.17 Viewing direction for minimum luminanceFigure 6.18 A pixel with four domainsFigure 6.19 The photo-induced alignment and adjustment of the tilt angle Θ of LC molecules on top of the orientation layerFigure 6.20 Principle of the in-plane switching modeFigure 6.21 Transmittance of various grey levels versus the off-axis Θ_e for an IPS displayFigure 6.22 The self-compensation of the retardation R of light propagating at an oblique angle through the π-cell. (a) Light propagation in the direction of the cell normal; (b) propagation at an oblique angleFigure 6.23 Isocontrast curves of a π cellFigure 6.24 The generation of a torque at an LC molecule in an E-fieldFigure 6.25 (a) Molecules exposed to a fringe field. Determination of a torque T (b) for a molecule on the left side, and (c) on the right side of a fringe fieldFigure 6.26 Field of directors generated by a fringe field in Figure 6.25(a) forming two domainsFigure 6.27 (a) Field of directors in aVA cell with a large voltage applied; (b) proof of stability for the horizontal orientation of a molecule in the centreFigure 6.28 The ellipsoid of revolution located in the centre of a VA cell in Figure 6.27(a)Figure 6.29 Colour shift in the chromaticity diagram (CIE 1976)Figure 6.30 (a) The MVA cell with protrusions; (b) propagation of the LC alignment in an MVA cellFigure 6.31 (a) Patterned electrodes of a PVA cell; (b) director field below a common electrode of a PVA cell when voltage is appliedFigure 6.32 Colour shift in the x–y chromaticity diagram in Figure 19.5 for a TN cell (d/p = 0.25) and a VA cell (d/p = 0)Figure 6.33 Electrodes and director field of a PVA cell with two domains when a voltage is appliedFigure 6.34 V-shaped electrodes for a four-domain cellFigure 6.35 The division of a pixel into two subpixels with areas A and B (upper part of figure) and γ curves for the subpixels with different area ratios (lower part of figure). This figure was reproduced from Kim, S. S., SID 05, p. 1842 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 6.36 The spread of the γ curve of an S-PVA display at various viewing angles. This figure was reproduced from Lee, S. W. et al., SID 06, p. 1591 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 6.37 Spread of the γ curve in the display of Figure 6.35 but with two subpixels. This figure was reproduced from Lee, S. W. et al., SID 06, p. 1592 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 6.38 Colour shift (a) for on-axis view and (b) for 60° off-axis view in a PVA display with two subpixels. This figure was reproduced from Lee, S. W. et al., SID 06, p. 1592 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 6.39 Achievable area for oblique angle γ curves. This figure was reproduced from Chen, C. Y. et al., SID 08, p. 1120 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 6.40 The achieved γ curve for case (a) (type I) and for the mix-type case, where (a) and (b) are feasible. This figure was reproduced from Chen, C. Y. et al., SID 08, p. 1120 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 6.41 Various pretilts and their direction of rotation after a voltage was applied. This figure was reproduced from Song, J. K., SID 04, p. 1345 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 6.42 Fabrication process for the polymer layer in PSA cells. This figure was reproduced from Hanaoka, K. et al., SID 04, p. 1200 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 6.43 The mountain shaped surface on the side of the colour filter. This figure was reproduced from Sohn, J. et al., SID 06, p. 1063 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 6.44 The circular alignment of the LC molecules as a pinwheel. Adapted from Kubo, M. et al., Sharp-world.com 2001, p. 2, Figure 1Figure 6.45 (a) Black stripes in the pixels before the addition of chiral components and (b) diminished black stripes after the addition of chiral components. Source: Kubo, M. et al., Sharp-world.com 2001, p. 2, Photo 1 a,bFigure 6.46 The three-layer laminate of the 3M reflective polarizerFigure 6.47 Merck’s reflective polarizer based on a cholesteric filmFigure 6.48 The operation of Brightness Enhancement Film (BEF)Figure 6.49 Optical waveguidesFigure 6.50 The viewing cone of an optical waveguide
6 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 The bipolar configuration of the LC molecules in a PDLC dropletFigure 7.2 Operation of a transmissive PDLC cell (a) in the off-state, and (b) in the on-stateFigure 7.3 Contrast ratio on screen versus power density of UV irradiation of a 10 μm thick PDLC cellFigure 7.4 Transmission versus voltage of a transmissive PDLC light valueFigure 7.5 The absorption of light by pleochroic dyesFigure 7.6 A reflective black and white PDLCD cell operating with ambient lightFigure 7.7 The Heilmeier Guest-Host cell (a) in the off-state, and (b) in the on-stateFigure 7.8 The Double Guest-Host cell with Δε > 0 (a) in the off-state and (b) in the on-state (Adapted from Uchida et al., 1980)Figure 7.9 The Double Guest-Host cell with Δε < 0 (a) in the off-state and (b) in the on-state (Adapted from Uchida et al., 1980)Figure 7.10 Absorbance versus voltage V_LC of a pleochroic dye for maximum absorbance at λ = 582 nmFigure 7.11 Cholesteric nematic phase change Guest-Host Display with the axis of the helix parallel to the glass plates (a) in the off-state, and (b) in the on-stateFigure 7.12 Cholesteric nematic phase change Guest-Host Display with the axis of the helix perpendicular to the glass plates (a) in the off-state, and (b) in the on-stateFigure 7.13 A reflective black and white PC-GHDFigure 7.14 Reflectance of a PC-GH LCD versus wavelengthFigure 7.15 A single cell DGH display with a plastic separation layerFigure 7.16 A GH display with a conventional colour filter for R, G and BFigure 7.17 Transmission spectra (a) of the primary colours R, G and B, and (b) of the complementary colours yellow, magenta and cyanFigure 7.18 Structure of a stacked three-layer PC-GH displayFigure 7.19 The three-layer GH display with stacked films of encapsulated liquid crystals
7 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Position of a molecule on a cone in each layerFigure 8.2 The helix in a layered structure of chiral smectic C* liquid crystalFigure 8.3 Textures of LC molecules between the substrates of an FLC cellFigure 8.4 (a) The black and (b) the white state associated with the two stable states of an FLCFigure 8.5 Various textures of SSFLCDs with pretilt α and layer tilt δ_c. The angles in brackets [ ] are shown as projections in the drawing planeFigure 8.6 The angles in the Chevron texturesFigure 8.7 The dependency of layer tilt δ_c on the pretilt α in SSFLCDs with the quasi-bookshelf and Chevron texturesFigure 8.8 The cone with the two stable positions of the molecules rotated by angle δ_c from the plane of the polarizers: (a) Isometric view, (b) side viewFigure 8.9 The effective switching angle β_eff(α) with δ_c(α) in Figure 8.7Figure 8.10 The planar texture chiral nematic displays with the axes of the helixes normal to the glass platesFigure 8.11 Homeotropically aligned molecules and the fingerprint texture of chiral nematic displaysFigure 8.12 The focal conic texture of SSCTDs without and for PSCTDs with the polymer networkFigure 8.13 The spectra of reflected light R and of scattered light S in an SSCTDFigure 8.14 Isocontrast curves of a reflective SSCT displayFigure 8.15 Three (resp. two) stacked reflective chiral nematic displays for the generation of coloursFigure 8.16 Transmittance versus voltage of an inverse mode chiral nematic displayFigure 8.17 The three stable states of a nematic cell with 0°, 360° and 180° twistsFigure 8.18 Grating and alignment of a zenithal bistable deviceFigure 8.19 Switching of the twisted zenithal bistable deviceFigure 8.20 Switching of the monostably anchored device from stable state (a) to stable state (d)
8 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 The deformed helix ferroelectric LCDFigure 9.2 Variation of the director twist φ dependent on the reduced location z′ on the helix and on the field +E and −EFigure 9.3 The texture of the antiferroelectric and of the ferroelectric LC materialFigure 9.4 The switching characteristics of antiferroelectric LCDs, (a) tilt angle Θ (E); (b) transmittance T (E); (c) the textures depending on EFigure 9.5 The V-shaped switching curve of antiferroelectric LCDs
9 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 The direct addressing of the seven segments of a digitFigure 10.2 The Passive Matrix LCD (PMLCD) with row and column electrodesFigure 10.3 The Active Matrix addressed LCD (AMLCD) with a TFT as pixel switch
10 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 The voltage for a directly addressed LCDFigure 11.2 The waveforms for Vc, Vs and Vp of a direct addressed LCDFigure 11.3 The reconfigured addressing of the display in Figure 10.1 into a matrix addressing with only 10 external connections
11 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 A display with 3 × 2 pixels with the desired video information,<img/> white and <img/> blackFigure 12.2 (a) Waveforms V_r1, V_r2, V_r3 in rows 1, 2 and 3; (b) waveforms V_c1 and V_c2 in column 1 and 2; (c) waveforms at pixels in row 1/column 1 and row 2/column 2Figure 12.3 The selection ratio V_on/V_off in Equation (12.21) as a function of the number N of rowsFigure 12.4 The reversal of polarity for row and column voltages in the addressing scheme without and with offsetFigure 12.5 The generation of the voltage needed for a column driverFigure 12.6 The circuit of a column driver for PM addressingFigure 12.7 A superframe of four frames for the generation of five grey shadesFigure 12.8 Pulse Width Modulation of the signal voltage V_c for the generation of grey shadesFigure 12.9 The various matrix architectures for PM-addressed LCDs: (a) and (b) depict modifications of the basic architecture; (c), (d) and (e) show modifications of the dual scan schemeFigure 12.10 The phenomenon of ‘frame response’ in fast LCDsFigure 12.11 The Walsh functions of order 1 to 32Figure 12.12 The row voltage S in Equation (12.43) and the column voltage G_max in Equation (12.46) for N = 256 as a function of L < N rows addressed at a timeFigure 12.13 Probability for column voltage levels as a function of column voltage for L = 4, 32, 256 rows addressed at a timeFigure 12.14 Waveform of a column voltage with 256 time intervals and 32 lines selected at a timeFigure 12.15 Block diagram for row and column drivers of an MLA-LCDFigure 12.16 The decreased levels of row and column voltages for PM addressingFigure 12.17 The reduced transmission at the pixel voltage V_th,V_sat and V_on > V_sat for N′ < NFigure 12.18 Dependence of contrast on frame frequency and on the number L of lines addressed at a timeFigure 12.19 Generation of full-interval PHM grey shades for a single row at a time addressed LCDFigure 12.20 Generation of full-interval PHM grey shade in an MLA-LCDFigure 12.21 Hardware for the generation of row and column voltages for pulse height modulated displaysFigure 12.22 The generation of column voltages including the virtual row by correlation for PHM displaysFigure 12.23 Change of the dielectric constants ε_|| and ε_┴ with frequencyFigure 12.24 The high-frequency voltage versus the low-frequency voltage for a 10 percent and a 90 percent optic transmission in a two frequency driving scheme
12 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 The hysteresis of the electro-optic response of an FLCD with intensity I versus pulse area AFigure 13.2 Switching thresholds of pulse duration τ_th versus pulse amplitude V_th of FLCDsFigure 13.3 The addressing of FLCDs with the V − τ_min schemeFigure 13.4 The addressing of FLCDs with the Harada scheme with (a) two time slots and (b) four time slots per pixel informationFigure 13.5 The addressing of FLCDs with a time slot schemeFigure 13.6 The depolarization field E_dep and the ionic field E_ion during switching of an FLCDFigure 13.7 Contrast versus duration of addressing impulse as switching window for (a) low P_s FLCDs and (b) higher P_s FLCDsFigure 13.8 The reflectivity of a cholesteric display versus the applied pixel voltage (a) if the voltage is maintained at the pixel, and (b) if the voltage is applied and then switched offFigure 13.9 Reflectivity and pixel voltage of a cholesteric display versus switching timeFigure 13.10 An example for passive matrix addressing of a cholesteric displayFigure 13.11 The five-phase drive scheme for cholesteric displaysFigure 13.12 The switching of chiral nematic displays with five phases in the drive scheme, p: preparation phase; pp: post-preparation phase; s: selection phase; ps: post-selection phase; e: evolution phase; pe: post-evolution (only relaxation, no action needed)
13 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 (a) The symbol for a TFT; (b) cross-section of a bottom-gate TFT; (c) cross-section of a top-gate TFTFigure 14.2 (a) Output characteristics of a TFT; (b) input characteristics of a TFT; (c) input characteristics of a TFT with the ordinateFigure 14.3 Measured (full line) and ideal (dashed line) input characteristics of a TFT with logarithmic ordinateFigure 14.4 The TFT and its environment in a pixel for charging of C_LC (a) to a positive voltage and (b) to a negative voltageFigure 14.5 The gate impulses and their effect on the pixel voltage V_pFigure 14.6 The TFT addressing with a compensation impulseFigure 14.7 The TFT in a pixel with voltages, currents and parasitic capacitancesFigure 14.8 Gate pulses for diminished crosstalk (a) with trapezoidal and (b) with rounded wave formFigure 14.9 The voltage-dependent capacitance of liquid crystalsFigure 14.10 The measured logarithmic input characteristics of an a-Si-TFT with the off-currentsFigure 14.11 The shift of V_th during bias temperature stress testsFigure 14.12 Example for one stage of a shift register for the rows of an AMLCDFigure 14.13 A video driver of an AMLCDFigure 14.14 Block diagram for block parallel video drivers for an AMLCDFigure 14.15 Addressing of an AMLCD with half the number of video driversFigure 14.16 Recycling of charge by closing the switches by the control signal CRFigure 14.17 (a) Blocks of pixels with the same sign of the voltage V_LC; (b) addressing of a line during two row address times. Reproduced from Nishimura et al., 1998 with permission of John Wiley & Sons.Figure 14.18 Introduction of a second line with the same information as the previous lineFigure 14.19 The introduction of an additional line if the capacitor C_s in Figure 14.18 is connected to the gate lineFigure 14.20 The introduction of an additional dot in an LCDFigure 14.21 (a) The entire addressing system; (b) γ-correctionFigure 14.22 (a) Basic pixel layout of an AMLCD; (b) pixel layout with storage capacitor along the edges of the ITO-electrode; (c) cross-section along the line A–A′ in Figure 14.22(b)Figure 14.23 Cross-section of a pixel with an additional black matrix on the active matrix plateFigure 14.24 Pixel with the storage capacitor underneath the pixel electrodeFigure 14.25 A pixel with C_s underneath the ITO electrodeFigure 14.26 (a) The top view of a pixel in a reflective display with a mirror, which also covers the rows and columns; (b) cross-section of the pixel in Figure 14.26(a)Figure 14.27 The process steps for a four-mask fabrication of a-Si:H TFTsFigure 14.28 A two-mask fabrication of a-Si: H TFTsFigure 14.29 (a) The ion-implantation of an a-Si: H TFT and (b) the completed a-Si:H TFTFigure 14.30 Cross section of an a-Si:H TFT with a copper gateFigure 14.31 The basic addressing circuit. This figure was reproduced from Lueder, E., SID 05 Seminar, p. M-5/2 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.32 (a) The overshoot driving and (b) the undershoot driving; dashed lines without overshoot or undershoot. This figure was reproduced from Lueder, E., SID 05 Seminar, p. M-5/2 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.33 The subsaturation mode of a TFT. This figure was reproduced from Lueder, E., SID 05 Seminar, p. M-5/3 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.34 Overdrive for V_LC with deviations in the circuit parameters. This figure was reproduced from Lueder, E., SID 05 Seminar, p. M-5/6 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.35 The capacitance C_LC and its charge Q as a function of V_LCFigure 14.36 The block diagram for the dynamic capacitance compensation (DCC). This figure was reproduced from Lee, B. W. et al., SID 01, p. 1261 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.37 Determination of V_1n from a given luminance L₀ and from the previous frame value C_{LC,n − 1} and a family of C_LC = Q/V_LC hyperbolas with Q-values as parameters. This figure was reproduced from Lueder, E., SID 05 Seminar, p.M-5/9 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.38 Determination of V_1n from a given luminance L₀, the Q = C_LCV_LC curve and a family of straight lines for the charges C_{LC,n − 1}V_LC with the inclination C_{LC,n − 1} as parameters. This figure was reproduced from Lueder, E., SID 05 Seminar, p.M-5/9 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.39 The addressing waveform with a voltage pulse providing a boost of torque. This figure was reproduced from Lueder, E., Workshop Asia Display/IMID 04, p. 65 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.40 The addressing waveform for imposing a small pretilt in the previous frame. This figure was reproduced from Song, J. K. et al., SID04, p. 1346with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.41 The turn-off and the turn-on time dependent on the voltage for the black stateFigure 14.42 Block diagram for the processing of the DCCII addressing method. This figure was reproduced from Song, J. K. et al., SID 04, p. 1346 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.43 The transient to the on-stage for various PVA based cells. This figure was reproduced from Song, J. K. et al., SID 04, p. 1346 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.44 Plot for intergrey response times of PVA with pretilt and overshoot (DCCII). This figure was reproduced from Song, J. K. et al., SID 04, p. 1346/7 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.45 (a) Cross-section and (b) top view of the CFFS cell. This figure was reproduced from Li, Y. et al., JSID 08, p. 1070 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.46 (a) The anticlockwise rotation of an LC molecule towards the white state in the driving field from underneath; (b) the clockwise rotation towards black in an impulse of the E-field from above (relaxation)Figure 14.47 (a) The conventional FFS, (b) the undershoot switching and (c) the CFFS. This figure was reproduced from Li, Y. et al., JSID 08, p. 1071 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.48 The decay of luminance to zero for the regular FFS (curve 1) and for CFFS (curve 2)Figure 14.49 The decay from a 100 percent to a 50 percent luminance for the three addressing modes in Figure 14.47: curve 1 for FFS, curve 2 for undershoot switching and curve 3 for CFFS. This figure was reproduced from Li, Y. et al., JSID 08, p. 1072 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.50 The decay of luminance from 50 percent to 10 percent for the three addressing modes in Figure 14.49Figure 14.51 Addressing of two subpixels with a two capacitor charge sharing circuit (CS-S-PVA). This figure was reproduced from Park, S. B. et al., SID 07, p. 1252 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.52 Addressing of two subpixels with a one-capacitor charge sharing circuit (CS-PVA)Figure 14.53 Addressing of an array by charge sharing. This figure was reproduced from Kim, S. S., SID 08, p. 197 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.54 Cross-section of a BVA display. This figure was reproduced from Shih, P. S. et al., SID 06, p. 1067 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.55 The minimum bias voltage required in the BVA mode versus the pixel voltage. This figure was reproduced from Shih, P. S. et al., SID 06, p. 1067 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.56 Cross-section of a BVA display with a stacked bias electrode. This figure was reproduced from Shih, P. S. et al., SID 06, p. 1069 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.57 Transmittance versus pixel voltage V_p of a BVA cell. This figure was reproduced from Shih, P. S. et al., SID 06, p. 1068 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.58 Addressing circuit of a BVA cell and dot inversion. This figure was reproduced from Shih P.S. et al. SID 06, p. 1068 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.59 The delayed 10 percent to 90 percent (a) rise and (b) fall of luminance L versus time as a response to a stepwise stimulus (mostly voltage) at an LCDFigure 14.60 Blurred edge width (BEW) of a moving stripe displayed on an LCDFigure 14.61 The smooth pursuit of a movement on an LCDFigure 14.62 The integration and averaging of luminance along the path of smooth pursuitFigure 14.63 The spatial response on the retina to a spatial rectangular impulse of width w and speed υ >; w displayed on an LCDFigure 14.64 The spatial response to a rectangular impulse of width w and speed υ < wFigure 14.65 The spatial response to a rectangular impulse of width w and speed υ presented with a flash of light of duration t₀ with Figure 14.66 The spatial response to a rectangular impulse of width w and speed υ presented with a flash of light of duration t₀ with , but t₀ < T_fFigure 14.67 The response V₀(x) = L, the luminance on the retina of (a) a stripe moving with speed υ in a 60 Hz frame; (b) a stripe moving with speed υ/2 in a 120 Hz frame; (c) a stripe moving in a 120 Hz frame with a black frame inserted (ν is measured as pixels/frame)Figure 14.68 The generation of a spatial response with artifacts between two moving images. This figure was reproduced from Mikoshiba, S. et al., SID 00, p. 385 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.69 The colour break-up in two pixels of width d with different colours moving at speed υ. This figure was reproduced from Mikoshiba, S. et al., SID 00, p. 386 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.70 The reduction of artifacts and colour break-up by approximating a parallelogram realized by shifting pixels. This figure was reproduced from Mikoshiba, S. et al., SID 00, p. 387 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.71 The edge enhancement by overdrive. This figure was reproduced from Kawabe, K. et al., SID 01, p. 998 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.72 A light impulse extended into two frames and the integration limits for the integrals in Equation (14.109). This figure was reproduced from Becker, M. E., SID 08, p.110 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.73 The block diagram for the calculation of the grey shade G″n replacing Gn by overshoot. This figure was reproduced from Lee, B. W. et al., SID 06, p. 1802 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.74 Luminance reached starting from different levels of black. This figure was reproduced from Kim, T. et al., SID 06, p. 1794 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.75 White level and contrast reached depending on the grey level of the black insertion. This figure was reproduced from Kim, T. et al., SID 06, p. 1795 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.76 The positions of a stripe of backlight with respect to the transient of the luminance (pixel response): (a) just before the start of the luminance, (b) in the rising flank of the luminance and (c) in the falling flank of the luminance. This figure was reproduced from Sluyterman, A. A. S. and Boonekamp, B. E., SID 05, p. 997 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.77 The ideal position of the scanning backlight at the start of the steady state of the luminance in each row. This figure was reproduced from Sluyterman, A. A. S. and Boonekamp, B.E., SID 05, p. 998 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.78 The still perceivable cycles per degree (cpd) of an object moving with speed in degrees/s. This figure was reproduced from Kuroki, Y. et al., SID 06, p. 14 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.79 The still perceived cpd versus speed with a frame rate of a displayed image of 60 Hz and 24 Hz. This figure was reproduced from Kuroki, Y. et al., SID 06, p. 14 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.80 Level of a no longer annoying BEW of various objects versus frame rate. This figure was reproduced from Kuroki, Y. et al., SID 06, p. 16 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.81 (a) The function of the subframes A/A and A/B and (b) the waveform of the voltages at subpixel A and B. This figure was reproduced from Kim, T. et al., SID 06, p. 1709 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.82 The transient of the luminance for different addressing schemes. This figure was reproduced from Kim, T. et al., JSID 08, 16/1, p. 181 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.83 The optical system consisting of an LCD and the human vision system (HVS).This figure was reproduced from Pan, H. et al., SID06, p. 1704 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 14.84 Temporal impulse response h_t(t) of an ideal LCDFigure 14.85 Temporal step response a_t(t) of an ideal LCDFigure 14.86 Spatial impulse response of a moving picture on the retinaFigure 14.87 Spatial step response of a moving picture on the retina versus a spatial coordinate x and a temporal coordinate x/υFigure 14.88 Optical step response of a pixel in an LCDFigure 14.89 The window of integration in Equation (14.131)Figure 14.90 The normalized luminance u_s(x/v) on the retina and the blurred edge time BETFigure 14.91 of g(t) in Figure 14.90Figure 14.92 The normalized responses u_t(t) of an LCD to the input functions g(t) in Figure 14.91Figure 14.93 The rectangle needed for the integration in Equation (14.136)Figure 14.94 Fourier-transform of curves in Figure 14.92Figure 14.95 Director field with angle Θ, coordinate z and voltage V as well as field E across the cellFigure 14.96 Waveform for fast addressingFigure 14.97 Blocks of rows for addressing with V_b and V_dFigure 14.98 (a)–(d) Oscillograms of voltages and luminances for four values of V_d using two column voltagesFigure 14.99 The addressing circuit within a pixelFigure 14.100 (a)–(d) Oscillograms of voltages and luminances for four values of V_d using a circuit within a pixel
14 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Cross-section of a p-channel and n-channel poly-Si TFTFigure 15.2 Fabrication steps of a top-gate poly-Si TFTFigure 15.3 V_th dependent on the dose of B doping in the channels of n-channel and p-channel poly-Si TFTs. Reproduced from Iberaki, 1999 with permission of John Wiley & Sons.Figure 15.4 Transfer characteristics of n- and p-channel poly-Si TFTs. Reproduced from Iberaki, 1999 with permission of John Wiley & Sons.Figure 15.5 Fabrication steps of a bottom-gate poly-Si TFTFigure 15.6 Grain with super lateral growth region dependent on the scanning laser doseFigure 15.7 Grain size with super lateral growth region dependent on large area laser doseFigure 15.8 REM photograph of grain size after four large area laser shotsFigure 15.9 The reflow method for generating LDD and n+ areas: (a) implantation before and (b) after reflow of photoresistFigure 15.10 Implantation with an anodized Ta mask (a) for contacts and (b) with Ta₂O₅ etched off for LDDFigure 15.11 Oblique implantation for LDD and contacts simultaneouslyFigure 15.12 The Lateral Body Terminal (LBT) for the reduction of the kink currentFigure 15.13 The circuit concept for a 202 dpi display with poly-Si drivers on glass and further ICs on an external circuit boardFigure 15.14 The circuit concept of a high-resolution displayFigure 15.15 Circuit diagram of a 6-bit poly-Si data driverFigure 15.16 A 5-bit D/A converter with γ correction in poly-Si technology
15 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Cross-section of LCOS addressing devicesFigure 16.2 Pixel FET_S and storage capacitor C_G of an LCOS arrayFigure 16.3 The time slots for a pixel with 5-bit grey shades. Numbers ν on top indicate weight 2^ν of a bit; numbers s below indicate if SRAM number 1 or number 2 feeds in the informationFigure 16.4 Block parallel addressing with four blocks and the time slots for 5-bit grey shades in each blockFigure 16.5 Digital block addressing in which SRAM outputs are required at different timesFigure 16.6 Addressing of two subpixels with area ratio 8 : 1Figure 16.7 An SRAM cellFigure 16.8 The components of a virtual display, (a) with the optic of a magnifying glass, and (b) with the optic derived from a microscope
16 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 The capacitor structure of a MIMFigure 17.2 The I_MIM − V_MIM characteristicsFigure 17.3 The log characteristicsFigure 17.4 The addressing of pixels in one line at a time by MIMsFigure 17.5 The line selection voltage for MIM addressingFigure 17.6 The transmission versus voltage curve of an LCD and the voltages V_th, V′_s and V_satFigure 17.7 Capacitive couplings in a MIM-driven displayFigure 17.8 A two-mask fabrication of Ta₂O₅ MIMs with self-aligned ITO top electrodeFigure 17.9 I_MIM − V_MIM characteristic for MIMs with ITO, Ta and Al as top electrode (as indicated in the legend)Figure 17.10 A back-to-back pair of MIMsFigure 17.11 Characteristics of MIMs with SiN_x as a dielectric in comparison to those with a Ta₂O₅ dielectricFigure 17.12 The pixel layout of a MIM display
17 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 Liquid crystal pixels addressed by a diode ringFigure 18.2 The optical image converter with an optical receiver on the right and an optical output LCD on the leftFigure 18.3 The light source and reflected light at the output of the image converterFigure 18.4 Equivalent circuit of the image converter in Figure 18.2Figure 18.5 A Plasma Addressed Liquid Crystal (PALC) displayFigure 18.6 Operation of the plasma switch (a) after ignition of the plasma and (b) after the subsequent grounding of the cathodeFigure 18.7 A laser-addressed LCDFigure 18.8 An electron-beam addressed LCD
18 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 Arrangement of colour pixels (a) in triangles, (b) in stripes, and (c) on diagonalsFigure 19.2 Cross-section of a pixellized colour filterFigure 19.3 Fabrication of a photosensitive pigment dispersed colour filterFigure 19.4 Transmittance of pigment dispersed colour filters. Thickness: R = 1.1 μ, G = 1.14 μ, B 1.22 μFigure 19.5 Chromaticity of pigment dispersed colour filtersFigure 19.6 Cross-section of dichroic filters for various coloursFigure 19.7 Transmittance of dichroic colour filters for R, G and BFigure 19.8 Cross-section of a blue LED chip. This figure was reproduced from Shibata, N., Asia Display IDW 01, p.1038 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.9 Series of layers in a multiple quantum well (MQW)Figure 19.10 Emission spectrum of a blue LED. This figure was reproduced from Shibata, N., Asia Display IDW 01, p.1038 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.11 Colour gamut for R, G, B LEDs and for a CRT. This figure was reproduced from Shibata, N., Asia Display IDW 01, p.1038 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.12 Shift of the chromaticity variables x and y versus the dc forward current I. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., SID 08 Seminar, p. M-6/16 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.13 Shift of the dominant wavelength λ_d versus the ambient temperature T_amb. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., ADEAC 05, p. 26 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.14 Decrease of luminous flux Φ_amb versus ambient temperature T_amb. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., ADEAC 05, p. 26 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.15 LED with enhanced upward emission of light. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., JSID 08, 16/2, p.292 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.16 (a)–(c) Processing steps for a flip-chip assembly for improved cooling of an LED chip. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., SID 08 Seminar, p. M-6/9 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.17 (a) Generation of white from a blue LED and yellow from phosphor; (b) the white spectrum obtained. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., SID 08 Seminar, p. M-6/7 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.18 Colour mixing of the light of three LEDs in a mixing light guide. This figure was reproduced from Martynov, Y. et al., SID03, p. 1259with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.19 Spectrum of a white LED with optimized placement of red at 625 nm, green at 533 nm and blue at 450 nm. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., SID 05 Seminar, p. M-11/9 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.20 Transmission of a typical colour LCD. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., SID 05 Seminar, p. M-11/8 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.21 Emission spectrum of a yellow phosphor-coated white LED. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., SID 05 Seminar, p. M-11/9 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.22 White spectrum of a triband phosphor fluorescent lamp. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., SID 05 Seminar, p. M-11/10 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.23 Transmission of R, G,BLEDs and CCFLs after the colour filters versus colour gamut in percentage NTSC. This figure was reproduced from Folkerts, W., SID 04, p. 1227 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.24 (a) The strips of LEDs in the back plane of an LCD and (b) cross-section of (a) (Lumiled). This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., SID 06 Seminar, p. M-2/24 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.25 The ratio of minimum/maximum of luminance versus the spacing s of the strips of LEDs in Figure 19.24(a)Figure 19.26 Colour uniformity of strips of LEDs versus the pitch p in Figure 19.24(a)Figure 19.27 The microstructure of holes for light extraction from an LED, expanded above. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., JSID 08, 16/2, p.293 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.28 The inverse trapezoidal light guide. This figure was reproduced from Lee, J. H. et al., JSID 08, 16/2, p. 330 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.29 The light guide in Figure 19.28 embedded in a PDMS LG plate. This figure was reproduced from Lee, J. H. et al., JSID 08, 16/2, p. 332 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.30 Cone-shaped lens on top of an LED module with cone angle Θ. This figure was reproduced from Chao, P. C. B. et al., JSID 08, p. 318 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.31 Intensity profile of the light generated by the cone-shaped lens for Θ = 45 . This figure was reproduced from Chao, P. C. B. et al., JSID 08, p. 319 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.32 The feeding of the three colours into the pixel area by diffractive microgratings. This figure was reproduced from Kimmel, J. et al., JSID 08, p. 353 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.33 The outcoupling of light from the gratings with the assistance of a trapezoidal structure. This figure was reproduced from Kimmel, J. et al., JSID 08, p. 354 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.34 The wedge-type light guide for edge-lit LEDs. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., SID 05 Seminar, p. M-11/13 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.35 The mounting of the light guide to the LCD. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., SID 05 Seminar, p. M-11/14 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.36 Path of light in the grooved prisms. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., SID 05 Seminar, p. M-11/14 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.37 Detailed light passes in a rear grooved prism sheet. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., JSID 08, 16/2, p. 298 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.38 The first and second prism in a double grooved prism. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., JSID 08, 16/2, p. 299 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.39 Light guide with double grooved prisms at its rear side. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., JSID 08, 16/2, p. 299 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.40 Light guide with micro lenses. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., JSID 08, 16/2, p. 299 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.41 Less-costly light guide. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., JSID 08, 16/2, p. 299 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.42 The non-uniform backlights L_b and L′_a in Equations (19.5) to (19.7)Figure 19.43 (a) and (b) Two cases for timing of scanned backlights without ghost pictures. This figure was reproduced from Onac, G. E. et al., JSID 08, p. 339 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.44 Power consumption versus duty cycle of a scanning backlight for various desired luminances. This figure was reproduced from Onac, G. E. et al., JSID 08, p. 339 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.45 The timing in a field sequential colour displayFigure 19.46 Pulse width modulation (PWM) of current IFigure 19.47 The essentials of an addressing circuit for LED backlights. This figure was reproduced from Nodari, M. et al., JSID 08, p. 347 with permission by the Journal of the Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.48 The addressing circuit for LED backlights with the feedback of colour sensorsFigure 19.49 The location of a colour sensor in an LED chip. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., SID 06 Seminar, p. M-2/33 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.50 The programmable interrupt controller for PWM of LEDs. This figure was reproduced from Anandan, M., SID 05 Seminar, p. M-11/23 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 19.51 Cross-section of an assembled LC cellFigure 19.52 Steps for cell assemblyFigure 19.53 Bonding of driver ICs to the LC cell
19 Chapter 20Figure 20.1 Single light valve colour projectorFigure 20.2 A single light valve field sequential colour projectorFigure 20.3 Single light valve scrolling projectorFigure 20.4 Generation of scrolling colour bands by a rotating prismFigure 20.5 Single light valve angular colour separation projectionFigure 20.6 A single light valve projector with colour gratingFigure 20.7 Three light valve projector with three equal optic pathsFigure 20.8 Three light valve projector with unequal optic pathsFigure 20.9 Projector with three reflective LC light valvesFigure 20.10 A projector with three LCOS light valvesFigure 20.11 Projector with two light valvesFigure 20.12 A rear projector with one or three light valvesFigure 20.13 A projector with three optically addressed LC light valves
20 Chapter 21Figure 21.1 Explanation of the shadow figure in reflective displaysFigure 21.2 Distortion of a rectangular isotropic bodyFigure 21.3 The expansion of a PES substrate versus d_l and d_s for α_s = 44 ppm/K, α_l = 5 ppm/K E_s = 2.6 kN/mm² (PES) and E_t = 86 kN/mm² in Equation (21.3) (Grimsdilch et al., 1978); (b) the tangential tension σ versus d_l and d_s for the same parameters as in Figure 21.3(a); (c) diagonal L_D of a square versus ΔT for a constant distortion in μm as parametersFigure 21.4 Input characteristics of a-Si :H TFTs fabricated at different process temperaturesFigure 21.5 Variation of V_th during BT stress of a-Si :H TFTs fabricated at various temperaturesFigure 21.6 Input characteristics of poly-Si TFTs fabricated at 250 °C and 200 °CFigure 21.7 Transfer steps of an LCD fabricated at high temperature to a flexible substrate (SUFLA). This figure was reproduced from Miyasaka, M., SID 07, p. 1673 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 21.8 SUFLA transfer yield versus display area. This figure was reproduced from Miyasaka, M., SID 07, p. 1675 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 21.9 I_D–V_G characteristics of an a-Si TFT on a thinned stainless steel substrate after 250 °C processing, heat treatment and a bias temperature stress (BTS). This figure was reproduced from Kim, C. D. et al., SID 09, p. 195 with permission by The Society for Information Display
21 Chapter 22Figure 22.1 Flexographic printingFigure 22.2 Knife coatingFigure 22.3 Ink-jet printing systemFigure 22.4 Printing head with piezo-electric elementFigure 22.5 Maximum radius versus speed of droplet with surface tension γλ as parameterFigure 22.6 Ultrasonic ink-jet printer. This figure was reproduced from Amemiya, I. et al., SID 07, p. 1603 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 22.7 Profile of droplet in an ultrasonic ink-jet printer. This figure was reproduced from Amemiya, I. et al., SID 07, p. 1604 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 22.8 Silk screen printingFigure 22.9 Wetting angle α of a liquidFigure 22.10 Process chamber of plasma cleaningFigure 22.11 UV–ozone cleaning chamberFigure 22.12 Free surface energy γ_s of ITO versus duration of UV–ozone cleaningFigure 22.13 Change of free surface energy of ITO during storage time. This figure was reproduced from Souk, J. H. et al., SID 08, p. 431 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 22.14 The ink-jet print bounded by a wall of a black matrix (a) before and (b) after baking. This figure was reproduced from Liu, K. H. et al., SID 07, p. 1607 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 22.15 Interlaced ink-jet heads for uniform printing on a larger areaFigure 22.16 Transmittance–voltage curve of a vacuum filled and of a flexographically printed nematic LC. This figure was reproduced from Kawashima, N. et al., SID 09, p. 25 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 22.17 Cross-section of an OTFT with a small molecule organic semiconductor. This figure was reproduced from Kawashima, N. et al., SID 09, p. 26 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 22.18 I_d–V_G characteristic of the OTFT in Figure 22.16. This figure was reproduced from Yase, K. et al., SID 09, p. 199 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 22.19 Two-step micro contact printing for OTFTs. This figure was reproduced from Yase, K. et al., SID 09, p. 199 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 22.20 Cross-section of an OTFT with a polymer based organic semiconductor. This figure was reproduced from Yase, K. et al., SID 09, p. 200 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 22.21 I_d–V_G characteristics of the OTFT in Figure 22.19Figure 22.22 Cell building by lamination of plastic substrates
22 Chapter 23Figure 23.1 (a) Cross-sectional transmission electron microscope surface of crystalline IGZO; (b) diagram of the crystalline layers. This figure was reproduced from Matsuo, T. et al. (2014), SID Symp. Digest Tech. Papers 45, pp. 83–86 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.2 Band gap diagram of c-axis aligned IGZO (CAAC-IGZO). This figure was reproduced from Yamazaki and Tsutsui (2017), p.96, fig 2.87, with permission by John Wiley and Sons Inc.Figure 23.3 Drain current (I_D)–gate voltage (V_G) input of a-Si, oxide semiconductors and LT PS. This figure was reproduced from Matsuo, T. et al. (2014), SID Symp. Digest Tech. Papers 45, pp. 83–86 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.4 Transmittance of an IGZO layer. This figure was reproduced from Yamashita, A. et al. (2015), JSID, 22, pp. 216–227 with permission by The Society for Information Display.Figure 23.5 Crystalline (a, c) and amorphous (b, d) atomic structures of IGZO. This figure was reproduced from Kamiya, T., et al. (2013), SID 44, pp. 11–13 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.6 Saturation and linear mobility in an oxide TFTFigure 23.7 Progress flow and structure of bottom-gate, bottom-contact TFT. This figure was reproduced from Osada, T., et al. (2009), SID 40, pp. 184–187 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.8 I_D–V_G curve of an amorphous In-Ga-Zn-oxide TFT. This figure was reproduced from Osada, T., et al. (2009), SID 40, pp. 184–187 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.9 Bottom-gate etch-stop transistor. This figure was reproduced from Yamazaki and Tsutsui (2017), p.5, fig 2.3a, with permission by John Wiley and Sons Inc.Figure 23.10 Schematic diagram of a three-layer structure of ITZO-TFTs. This figure was reproduced from Tsai M., et al. (2015), SID 46, with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.11 (a, b) I_D = f(V_G) and mobility and sub-threshold voltage swing (SS) for a single-layer IGZO-TFT (a) and a single-layer ITZO-TFT (b). This figure was reproduced from Tsai M., et al. (2015), SID 46, with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.12 I_D = f(V_G) and mobilities and SS values for the two single layers and the triple layer, the triple-layer device working in enhancement mode. This figure was reproduced from Tsai M., et al. (2015), SID 46, with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.13 View of a display with split source, drain and semiconductor electrodes and cross-section of bottom-gate etch-stop TFT. This figure was reproduced from Lee, S. et al. (2018) JSID, 26, pp. 164–168 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.14 (a, b) I_D = f(V_G) for a conventional and a split TFT (a) and field effect mobility for a conventional and a split TFT (b). This figure was reproduced from Lee, S. et al. (2018) JSID, 26, pp. 164–168 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.15 (a, b) PBTS for I_D = f(V_G) for a conventional (a) and a split (b) electrode TFT with stress times of up to 3.6 ks. This figure was reproduced from Lee, S. et al. (2018) JSID, 26, pp. 164–168 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.16 Cross-section of dual-gate back-channel etched IGZTO-TFT. This figure was reproduced from Nakata, M., et al. (2019) SID 50: 1226–1229 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.17 The various categories of crystalline layers. This figure was reproduced from Yamashita, A. et al. (2015), SID Symp. Digest Tech. Papers 45, pp. 263–266 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.18 Mobility as a function of atomic percent of N concentration. Lee, E. et al. (2015), SID, p. 681 266 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.19 Bottom-gate top conductor TFT with capacitor. This figure was reproduced from Yamazaki, S. (2014), SID, 45, p. 9 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.20 Hall mobility of nIGZO and CAAC-IGZO. This figure was reproduced from Ishihara, N. et al. (2016), SID Symp. Digest Tech. Papers, 47, p. 816 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.21 Cross-section of the layers of a printed TFT. S, semiconductor. This figure was reproduced from Chena, Y. et al. (2016), p. 322, SID Symp. Digest Tech. Papers, 47 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.22 I_D = f(V_G) of an all-printed oxide TFT. This figure was reproduced from Matsumoto, S. et al. (2015), SID 46, p. 300 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.23 (a, b) Structures for a printed TFT before (a) and after (b) irradiation for conductivity enhancement. This figure was reproduced from Bermundo, J. et al. (2019), SID 50, pp. 422–425 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.24 I_D = f(V_G) after UV and krypton fluoride (KrF) excimer laser irradiation of all-printed layers. This figure was reproduced from Bermundo, J. et al. (2019), SID 50, pp. 422–425 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.25 (a, b) Layers of a single-gate TFT under tensile stress (a) and under compressive stress (b). This figure was reproduced from Billah, M. et al. (2016), SID 47, p. 1155 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.26 (a, b) I_D = f(V_G) for a single-gate TFT (a) and a dual-gate TFT (b) under tensile and compressive stress. This figure was reproduced from Billah, M. et al. (2016), SID 47, p. 1155 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.27 I_D = f(V_G) under NBIS for a single-gate (a) and a dual-gate TFT (b) and for bending stress for a single-gate (c) and a dual-gate TFT (d). This figure was reproduced from Billah, M.M. and Jang, J. (2019) SID 50, pp. 210–213 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.28 A V_th in for the time under NBIS (a) and under tensile strain (b) for single- and dual-gate driving and the mobility under NBIS (c) and tensile stress (d) for single- and dual-gate driving. This figure was reproduced from Billah, M.M. and Jang, J. (2019) SID 50, pp. 210–213 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.29 Wavelength of the UWB-TFT and the a-IGZO-TFT. This figure was reproduced from Kim, J. et al. (2016), SID Symp. Digest Tech. Papers, 47 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.30 (a, b) NBIS stability under white LED illumination for the a-IGZO TFT (a) and the UWB-aOS TFT (b). This figure was reproduced from Kim, J. et al. (2016), SID Symp. Digest Tech. Papers, 47 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.31 (a, b) Stability under fluorescent lamp illumination for a-IGZO TFT (a) and UWB-aOS TFT (b). This figure was reproduced from Kim, J. et al. (2016), SID Symp. Digest Tech. Papers, 47 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.32 (a, b) PBTS test for a non-split (a) and a split-layer TFT (b). This figure was reproduced from Lee, S. et al. (2019) SID Symp. Digest Tech, Papers 50, pp. 1263–1266 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.33 (a, b) Bending test for a non-split TFT (a) and a split-layer TFT (b). This figure was reproduced from Lee, S. et al. (2019) SID Symp. Digest Tech, Papers 50, pp. 1263–1266 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.34 Cross-linking of styrene-based polymer (PC200) into a conductor. This figure was reproduced from Oku, S. (2018), SID 49, pp. 794–796 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.35 Patterning of electrodes by PVPU irradiation. This figure was reproduced from Oku, S. (2018), SID 49, pp. 794–796 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.36 Schematic illustration of the fabricated organic TFT. This figure was reproduced from Oku, S. (2018), SID 49, pp. 794–796 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.37 I_D = f(V_G) for the organic TFT. This figure was reproduced from Oku, S. (2018), SID 49, pp. 794–796 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.38 Mobility of the organic TFT depending on the channel length. This figure was reproduced from Oku, S. (2018), SID 49, pp. 794–796 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.39 I_D = f(V_G) diagram of an OTFT with Al and Au electrodes. This figure was reproduced from Katsuhara, M. et al. (2014), Symp. Digest Tech. Papers, 45, pp. 716–719 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.40 The mobilities μ_o before and μ_R after bending test of an OTFT with radius R < 10 mm. This figure was reproduced from Katsuhara, M. et al. (2014), Symp. Digest Tech. Papers, 45, pp. 716–719 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.41 The conventional five photolithographic steps for one pattern. This figure was reproduced from Kaelblein, D. et al. (2016), SID 47, p. 869 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.42 Photolithography with direct patterning of an organic semiconductor in two steps. This figure was reproduced from Kaelblein, D. et al. (2016), SID 47, p. 869 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.43 Transfer characteristics of 10 photopatterned organic transistors. This figure was reproduced from Kaelblein, D. et al. (2016), SID 47, p. 869 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.44 I_D = f(V_G) of an organic TFT with a mobility of 4 cm²/Vs. This figure was reproduced from Kaelblein, D. et al. (2016), SID 47, p. 869 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 23.45 The upper half of a liquid crystal cell with rotated molecules and vertical alignment.
23 Chapter 24Figure 24.1 Comparison of schematic electrode structure and on-state molecular orientation showing differences between IPS and FFS devices. LC orientations at electrode positions a, b, c are quite different each other such that it has an optic axis at a but no optic axis at cFigure 24.2 Time-dependent transmittance curves in the FFS device when an operating voltage is applied for a LC with positive dielectric anisotropy. The LC switches at first at electrode position c by dielectric torque, giving rise to transmittance around region c only after relaxation of 5 ms and then switches at a (a′) by elastic torque sequentially, giving rise to transmittance even above region a after relaxation of 35 msFigure 24.3 Comparisons of calculated voltage-dependent transmittance curves (a) and electrodeposition dependent transmittance (b) between +LC and –LC in the FFS devices. Here the following cell and LC parameters are used for calculation: w = 3 μm, l = 4.5 μm, d = 3.5 μm, K_{11 =} 9.6 pN, K_{22 =} 5.3 pN, K_{33 =} 11.6 pN, = 84 m Pa s, Δε = 4 (–4) for +LC (–LC), Δn = 0.1028 at 550 nm, angle of initial LC director with respect to Ey ₌ 80° (10_°) for +LC (–LC). The transmittance of two parallel polarizers is 36.5 percentFigure 24.4 Structure of 5CB (4-cyano-40-pentylbiphenyl), which shows typical nematic phase at room temperature. With random orientation of head to tail of LCs, there is no induced polarity in the liquid crystal director field. In a splay orientation with collective arrangement of head to tail of LCs, the polarization P is induced, which can couple with an applied electric fieldFigure 24.5 LC molecular orientation in a white state and its corresponding transmittance without (normal mode) and with (flexoelectric mode) P_f in IPS cell. In the normal mode, the transmittance does not occur above the centre of the electrodes. In the flexoelectric mode, P_f1 and P_f2 with mirror symmetry are formed along the field direction near the edges of electrodes. During the +frame, the coupling between E and P_f1 occurs in a constructive way while the coupling between E and P_f2 occurs in a destructive way so that transmittance above the signal electrode remains low but that above the common electrode becomes very high. During the –frame, the coupling is reversed and so is the transmittance behaviour. Here w = 5 μm, l = 5 μm, d = 4 μm, Δε = 6, an initial angle between LC director and Ey ₌ 80°Figure 24.6 Experimental observation of flexoelectric effect in the IPS cell. (a) Schematics of the cell geometry (blue and red arrows represent the electric field vector). (b) Voltage-dependent transmittance curves as a function of driving frequencies with a square wave. (c) Local time-dependent transmittance on the indicated location by black arrows under the application of ~3.7 V (50 percent of the maximum transmittance). Insets: POM images with scale bar (10 μm) for positive (top) and negative (bottom) frames. (d) Local time-averaged transmittance after the curves saturated and its standard deviation with respect to the driving frequency f. Here, w = 5 μm, l = 5 μm, d = 5 μm, Δε = 4, an initial angle between LC director and Ey ₌ 80_°. This figure was reproduced from Kim et al. (2016), Sci. Rep., 6, pp. 35254, fig. 1 with permission by Springer NatureFigure 24.7 Simulation and experimental results showing typical spatial brightness appearance in the FFS mode without and with flexoelectric coefficients. Along fringe electric field lines, a splay deformation occurs, generating P_f1 and P_f2 each at both regions of pixel electrode edge (b and b′ in Figure 24.2). The simulation without e_b and e_s (normal mode) shows relatively low transmittance above the centre of electrodes (a and a′) compared with that at the edge of the electrode (c), which exactly matches transmittance oscillation in experiments along the y-direction. The simulation with e_b and e_s (flexoelectric mode) shows large transmittance change above the centre of the electrodes (A and B) such that during +frame, the transmittance at A (B) decreases (increases) compared with in the normal mode. During the –frame, the transmittance change is reversed, resulting in increased (decreased) transmittance at A (B). Experimental results of 1 Hz driving exhibit exactly the same behaviour with the simulation results. Here w_{p =} 3 μm, l′ = 5 μm, d = 4 μm, thickness of insulator (h) = 0.4 μm, Δε = 3.8, an initial angle between LC director and Ey ₌ 80°Figure 24.8 Microphotographs of pixels showing large flexoelectric effect with +LC (a, b) and minimized flexoelectric effect with –LC (c, d) in FFS TFT-LCDs with IGZO TFTs and (e) time-dependent luminance during frame change, showing larger fluctuation in +LC than in –LC. This figure was reproduced from Miyake et al. (2016), SID 47, pp. 592–595, fig. 3–5 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.9 Development history of IPS mode and IPS TFT-LCDs. The hatched arrows indicate mass production. This figure was reproduced from Kondo et al. (2005), SID 36, pp. 978–981, fig. 2 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.10 (a) Schematic pixel structure of U-FFS TFT-LCD. Microphotographs of pixel in TFTLCDs: (b, c) IPS (b) and IPS-Pro (FFS) (c) in a white state. This figure was reproduced from Lee et al. (2001), SID 32, pp. 484–487, fig. 6 and Ono et al. (2005), SID 36, pp. 1848–1851, fig. 1 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.11 Schematic comparison of cross-sectional pixel structures near data line and simulated transmittance between advanced FFS (AFFS) (a) and high-aperture-ratio FFS (HFFS) (b) modes. The insulating layers between pixel and common electrodes are inorganicFigure 24.12 Comparison of voltage-dependent transmittance curves in high-resolution mobile TFTLCDs. The high-aperture-ratio FFS (HFFS) mode shows the highest transmittance among all LC modes, and even much better than the advanced FFS (AFFS) mode, as also shown in the microscopic images of pixels. This figure was reproduced from Lim et al. (2006), IDW’06, pp. 807–808, fig. 2 and table 1 with permission by The Society for Information Display and website of HYDIS Co.Figure 24.13 Zigzag pixel TFT arrangement in IPS-Pro II. This figure was reproduced from Ono et al. (2007), IDW’07, pp. 67–70, fig. 1 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.14 History of IPS technology and comparison of cross-sectional pixel structures between IPS-Pro (a) and IPS-Pro Next (b). This figure was reproduced from Ono et al. (2012), IDW’12 in conjunction with Asia Display, pp. 933–936, table 1 and fig. 1 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.15 Front-view photographs of pixels in 47-inch LCDs in IPS-Pro and IPS-Pro-Next. This figure was reproduced from Ono et al. (2012), IDW’12 in conjunction with Asia Display, pp. 933–936, table 3 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.16 Microphotographs of pixels in iPad and mobile phones utilizing the FFS modeFigure 24.17 Timing chart for a refresh rate of 90 Hz LCD with 1700 scan lines (a) and 120 Hz LCD with 2432 scan lines (b). Here, the horizontal axis shows time, the vertical axis shows the panel position. This figure was reproduced from T. Matsushima et al. (2018), SID 49, pp. 667–670, fig. 6 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.18 Comparison of pixel structure between conventional FFS (a) and ip-SFR (b) modes and its corresponding LC molecular orientation and transmittance in a voltage-on state. The second row indicates transmittance in the cross-sectional line I–I′ . Both modes have the same electrode layers but different shape of common electrode. This figure was reproduced from Katayama et al. (2018), SID 49, pp. 671–673, fig. 4 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.19 (a, b)Cross-section of the SL-IPS panel showing initial condition with electrodes and LC directors (a) and LC directors in a voltage-on state with equipotential line contours (b). Here, LC directors located in vertical lines do not switch and the distance l between these two lines exists, orthogonal to cell gap d. (c,d) Top view of desired (c) and undesired (d) status of LC director distribution with applied voltage and its corresponding luminance photomicrographs of desired (e) and undesired (f) status with applied voltage. The alternate bright and dark stripes of luminance in the desired state change to irregular in the undesired state (circle). (g) Electrode structure of SL-IPS to control the rotating direction of LC directors with trunk and branch parts. (h) Details of equipotential lines and vector orientation lines with electrode structure. The black bars indicate LC directors. (i) In-plane luminance distribution in SLC-IPS test cell. This figure was reproduced from Matsushima et al. (2018), J. Soc. Inf. Disp., 26(10), pp. 602–609, fig. 4-8 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.20 Schematic cross-sectional view of the UFS device with LC directors and electric field lines in dark (a) and bright (b) state. Here, the LC medium exists under two crossed polarizers. Two electrode layers on the bottom substrate exist with a passivation layer between them as in the FFS mode and a common electrode exists on the top substrate. The common electrode has open gap g and the size of a pixel electrode can be adjustable depending on display resolutions. The arrows indicate the electric field direction between pixel and common electrodes. In the voltage-on state, LC directors experience bend deformation as indicated in Figure 24.1(b). This figure was reproduced from Yoon et al. (2018), SID 49, pp. 34142–34149, fig. 1 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.21 Calculated electrode position-dependent transmittances at three different voltages when g is 1 μm (a), 2 μm (b) and 3 μm (c) in the UFS cell. (d) Calculated voltage-dependent transmittances at three different g-values and (e) time-dependent transmittance curves in the FFS and UFS devices. In the FFS device, the electrode width and gap between patterned electrodes are 3 and 4.5 μm, respectively. The thickness of the passivation layer is 300 nm. The physical properties of LCs tested are as follows: dielectric anisotropy Δε = 8.2, birefringence Δn = 0.1148 at 550 nm, rotational viscosity γ = 80 mPa s, splay/twist/bend elastic constants = 16.9/8.42/19.2 in pN and the d is 4 m. The A and P in (d) represent the analyser and polarizer, respectively. This figure was reproduced from Yoon et al. (2018), SID 49, pp. 34142–34149, fig. 2 with permission by The Society for Information Display.Figure 24.22 Evaluation of optical crosstalk considering 3 × 3 pixels using a three-dimensional simulator: (a) top-view of luminance profile when three pixels in the second row are on-state; (b) luminance profile along horizontal direction in which it is defined well within 4 μm. This figure was reproduced from Yoon et al. (2018), SID 49, pp. 34142–34149, fig. 5 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.23 Schematic diagram of a pixel structure in viewing-angle-controllable FFS LCD. This figure was reproduced from Wang, L. et al. (2018), SID 49, pp. 1765–1768, fig. 1 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.24 Photographic images of 13.3-inch viewing angle controllable FFSLCD in WVA(a) and NVA (b) modes. This figure was reproduced from Wang, L. et al. (2018), SID 49, pp. 1765–1768, fig. 3 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.25 Viewing angle dependence of contrast ratio in both wide (WVA) and narrow viewing angle (NVA) modes. This figure was reproduced from Wang, L. et al. (2018), SID 49, pp. 1765–1768, fig. 6 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.26 Configuration of FFS-based privacy LCD: (a) conventional; (b) new. This figure was reproduced from Murata et al. (2020), SID 51, pp. 874–877, fig. 1 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.27 Schematic LC orientation associated with generated electric field in a white state in wide and narrow view modes: (a) conventional; (b) new. This figure was reproduced from Murata et al. (2020), SID 51, pp. 874–877, fig. 2 with permission by The Society for Information DisplayFigure 24.28 Appearance of the 5.3-inch prototype of new switchable LCD in wide-view mode, normal privacy mode and stronger privacy mode. This figure was reproduced from Murata et al. (2020), SID 51, pp. 874–877, fig. 6 with permission by The Society for Information Display
24 Chapter 25Figure 25.1 Development steps of automotive instrumentation over the years (passenger cars)Figure 25.2 Eddy-current speedometer (photo: Peter M. Knoll).Figure 25.3 Cross-coil moving-magnet pointer driveFigure 25.4 Stepper motor (Lavet principle)Figure 25.5 Exploded view of an instrument cluster with stepper motors (photo: Peter M. Knoll)Figure 25.6 Digital instrument of the Audi Quattro 1994 in VFD technologyFigure 25.7 Digital instrument of the Audi Quattro 1988 using LCD technology, all segments on (photo: Peter M. Knoll)Figure 25.8 Monochrome graphic LCD module with red LED illumination integrated into a mechanical instrument cluster of an early Mercedes B-class (photo: Peter M. Knoll)Figure 25.9 Instrument cluster with large graphic LCD (8-inch diagonal), normal modeFigure 25.10 Instrument cluster with large graphic LCD (8-inch diagonal) in the night vision modeFigure 25.11 Principle of a three-dimensional instrument cluster (photo: Bosch)Figure 25.12 Information terminal in the centre console from the mid-1980s (photo: Peter M. Knoll)Figure 25.13 The cockpit of the Mercedes S-class 2021. Source: Daimler Global Media Site (2021)Figure 25.14 Dashboard of the Mercedes S-class 2013. Source: Daimler Global Media Site (2021)Figure 25.15 Operating element for all driver information functions in the Mercedes S-class 2013. Source: Daimler Global Media Site (2021)Figure 25.16 Panorama cockpit (Honda, 2020)Figure 25.17 View into the F015 self-driving research vehicle from Daimler (shown at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas 2015)Figure 25.18 The first head-up displayFigure 25.19 Principle of a head-up displayFigure 25.20 Head-up display in a vehicle. Source: BMWFigure 25.21 Augmented reality head-up display (ARHUD) information content. Source: BMW

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